Biology Flashcards
Macromolecule
Large biological molecules such as a protein polysaccharide or nucleic acid
Monomer
Simple molecules used as a basic building blocks of the synthesis of a polymer usually joined by condensation reactions
Polymer
Try molecule made from similar repeating subunits join together in a chain
Maltose
A glucose times two
sucrose
Alpha glucose and beta fructose
Transport sugar in plants
Common shop sugar
lactose
Glucose and galactose
Sugar In milk important for babies
Polysaccharides
Are not sugars
Glucose in cells
Implants stored as starts and glycogen and animals as if it accumulated in sells it would dissolve and make the contents of the cell to concentrated seriously affecting osmosis reactive molecule
Storage polysaccharides
Convenient compact inert an insoluble
Starch
Amylose and amylopectin
Amylose
Condensation reaction between alpha glucose molecules bonds between carbon one and carbon for curve chains and helical structures
amylopectin
One and four linked alpha glucose molecules shorter change then analyse and branch out to the side branches form one and six linkages
Glycogen
Chains of one and four link alpha glucose with 16 linkages forming branches more branched than amylopectin glycogen molecules clumped together to form granules
Celulose
Structural roll mechanically strong polymer of beta glucose to form a glycosidic bond one molecule must be rotated 180° to make 0H group next to each other the phone glycocin it bond
Why are Celulose stronger
0H grapes weekly attracted to oxygen atoms in the glucose rain and the OH great in neighbouring molecules forming hydrogen bonds individually week but so many conform that collectively they are very strong. Celulose molecules become tightly crossed lent to phone bundles good microfibrils how together and bundles called fibres by hydrogen bonding
Cellulose function
In cell walls several layers of fivers running in different directions to increase strength Celulose makes up 20 to 40% of the average so other molecules help to Crossling fivers acting like a glue. Celulose has high tensile strength similar to steal very difficult to stretch a break can withstand large pressures as a result of osmosis help provide support the plant by making tissues rigid and responsible to sell expansion during growth arrangement if I was determined shape of the cell free permeable
Lipids
Group of chemicals all organic molecules insoluble in water that’s a solid at room temperature oils a liquid at room temperature. Monomers are fatty acids and glycerol
Unsaturated lipids
Do not contain maximum possible amount of hydrogen double bonds by fatty acids are lipids melt more easily most oils unsaturated if more than one double bond it’s known as polyunsaturated if only one it’s mono unsaturatedanimal lipids often saturated and occurs fats the plant that is often unsaturated and occur is oil such as Oliver and flower oil
Bonding and lipids
The reaction between an acid in an alcohol produce a chemical known as an ester the chemical link between acid and alcohol is an ester bond
Three form in a condensation reaction releasing three H2O
Triglycerides
Most common letters lipids three hydroxyl group’s each undergo a condensation reaction with a fatty acid forming three Ester bonds
Roles of triglycerides
Energy reserves as rich and carbon hydrogen bonds even richer than carbohydrates and will yield more energy on oxidation in the same massive carbohydrate has a high calorie van you advantage of free storage product stored in many places in human body acts as an insulator lobby in Wales sort of buoyancy antimetabolic source of water when oxidising respiration converted to carbon dioxide and water
Proteins
Made up of amino acid’s have a central carbon atom bonded to an amine group NH2 and carboxylic acid group C00H that component always bonded to the carbon atom is called the R group there are 20 different kinds in the proteins of living organisms all with different r groups
How do amino acid’s join
One losers a hydroxyl group from its carboxylic acid and the adjacent leases the hydrogen atom from its amine group forming a peptide bond and water
Carbon atom bonds with nitrogen atom of the second
Went to amino acid’s join
A dipeptide forms any number of amino acid can be added to the chain in a series of condensation reactions I’m on if you’re made of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Is called a only peptide a macromolecule a complete protein molecule may contain one polypeptide chain will have two more interacting with each other
Breaking down polypeptides
Broken down into Mina asses by breaking peptide bonds in hydrolysis reaction happens naturally and stomach and small intestines during digestion. Protein molecules in food a hydrolysed into Mina asses before being absorbed into the blood
Primary structure of protein
The sequence in which particular amino acid our joint thousands of different possibilities. Simply the polypeptide chain of a protein
Secondary structure of proteins
Amino acid’s have a fact on each other due to hydrogen bonding between the oxygen of the CEO group of one amino acid and the hydrogen on the aim in group of another can hold together in family coiled alpha helix or looser straight to shape beater pleated sheet. Hydrogen bonds can hold structures together but easily broken by high temperature and pH changes some protein show no regular arrangement
Tertiary structure
The compact structure of a protein molecule resulting from 3-D coiling of the already folded chain of amino acid’s held an exact science by bonds between amino acid in different parts of the chain the shape of the molecules are very precise
Bonds holding together proteins
Hydrogen bonding disulphide bonds SH and HS the two hydrogens are released for me disulphide bonds ionic bond between ionised NH3+ and COO minus and we can hydrophobic interactions between nonpolar R groups as the repelled by water environment around them
Quaternary structure
Interactions of more than one polypeptide chain change held together by same forward have a bond as in tertiary structure
Globular proteins
Proteins his molecule Kyles up into a ball shape Carl up due to nonpolar hydrophobic our groups pointing into the centre of the molecule away from water usually soluble as outward point in groups are hydrophilic such as haemoglobin many globular proteins have rolls and metabolic reaction precise she is key to function such as in enzymes which Are globular proteins
Fibrous proteins
Do not Carl up into ball shapes phone long strands and often have structural rolls not soluble in water usually keratin forms hair nails and out of their skin and collagen is a fibrous protein
Haemoglobin
Oxygen carrying pigment in red blood cells globular proteins are made up of four polypeptide chains Quaternary structure it’s chain is a protein known as globin two types used to alpha Globin and two beta-globin nearly spherical hydrophobic our group is pointing in with a hydrophilic outwards interactions between hide your favourite all groups inside the molecule are important and Holly is correct 3-D shape out with pointing or groups are important in maintaining solubility each polypeptide chain contains haem group not made of amino acid’s each him group contains an iron atom one oxygen molecule combined with each eye an atom can carry eight oxygen atoms when bound to oxygen oxyhaemoglobin is bright red if not haemoglobin is purple
Collagen
Common fibrous protein insoluble found in skin tendons cartilage bones and teeth structural protein in humans and animals three polypeptide chains in the shape of the helix wound round each other to form a three stranded rope or triple helix how together by hydrogen bonds and some covalent bond almost every third Ameena acid is glycine as it is the smallest amino acid so the strands can lie close together cross links and covalent bonds between our groups hold many collagen molecules side by side forming fibrils. End of molecule staggered to stop weak spots fibrils Lie alongside each other forming fivers collagen is flexible but has tremendous tensile strength can withstand large forces the Achilles tendon almost pure collagen can withstand huge pulling falls collagen fivers lineup according to the falls Amos with stand in tendons they lineup in parallel bundles along the lancs in skin they phone layers and resist tensile forces as lineup in different directions
Water as a solvent
Water molecules are polar and surround polar ions and molecules and collect around them in separate them causing him to dissolve
Water as a transport medium
Transform eating with him blood in vascular tissue plants digestive excretory and lymphatic system is
Hi specific heat capacity
The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature 1 kg of water by 1°. Water has high heat capacity as lots of energy is needed to break hydrogen bonds allowing water to store more energy makes water resistant to changes in temperature useful in cells within the bodies to keep constant by chemical reactions can now operate at relatively constant rates and likely to be adversely affected by stream change the temperature also means the lakes and oceans of slow to change temperature due to environmental change providing stable habitats
Hi latent heat of vaporisation
Measure of the heat energy needed to vaporiser liquid water has high due to hydrogen bonds useful as sweating can be used to cool down without causing dehydration as a large amount of heat energy can be lost a little water of operation reverse is true from water to ice meaning less likely water will freeze advantage for aquatic organisms
Density and freezing properties
Ice is less dense than water floats on water due to hydrogen bonding
Hi surface tension and cohesion
cohesion water tends to stick to each other can move on long on broken columns through vascular tissue implants results in high surface tension alarming small organisms such as pond skaters to skate over water surface
Water as a reagent
Reagent and some chemical reactions in cells photosynthesis where sunlight separate hi Sharon from oxygen and water and hydrogen is used to provide energy for plans by making Lucas water is also essential and hydrolysis reaction indigestion
Carbohydrate general formula
Cx(H2O)y
Bonds in backbone of bases
Phosphodiester bonds
The DNA strand you read off
The sense Strand
Enzyme catalyse is joining of amino acid’s
Peptidyl transferase in small ribosome subunit
What happens when oxygen binds to haemoglobin molecule
The haemoglobin molecule distorts make it easy for a second oxygen molecule to combine more distortion makes it easier for a third molecule and then easier for a fourth and final
How does haemoglobin release oxygen
CO2+H20—–>H2CO3 carbonic acid with enzyme carbonic anhydrase carbonic acid dissociates to form H+ and HCO3- haemoglobin readily combines with hydrogen ions forming haemoglobinic acid HHB in doing so releases oxygen
What happens when haemoglobin binds with hydrogen ions
Takes H plus out of the blood and helps to maintain the pH of the blood close to neutral acting as a buffer to stop acidic H plus ions
How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood
85% as HCO3 minus ions most diffuse out carried on solution some carbon dioxide does not dissociate remains as CO2 molecules some dissolve in the plasma other molecules diffusing into red blood cells and combine with terminal amine groups of haemoglobin molecule is forming Carbaminohaemoglobin
Wall of muscle separating the heart
Septum
What and where is the patch of muscle that controls rhythm of the heart
Called the sinoatrial node on the wall of the right atrium
What causes the delay in excitation waves reaching the ventricles in the heart
The atrioventricular no node Band of fibres between atria and ventricles cannot conduct the wave. The AVN is the only part that can after a delay of 0.1 seconds pass it onto conducting fibres or purkyne tissue
The name of the muscle the contracts and relaxes automatically without impulses
Myogenic
Emphysema
Infected lungs cause Phagocytes to leave the blood and line the airways to get through the capillaries they release proteins Digesting enzyme elastase the enzyme destroys elastin in the walls of the alveoli elastin is responsible for recoil with less elastin the alveoli do not stretch and recoil therefore bronchioles collapsed during expiration trapping air in the alveoli which often burst large space appear where alveoli have burst this reduces surface area and the number of capillaries so less oxygen is absorbed by the blood
When cells break away and spread to other organs so secondary tumours form
Metastasis
Secondary tumour is known as malignant tumours
nicotine
Absorb Readily by the blood travels to the brain few seconds stimulates nervous system to reduce diameter of arterioles and to release adrenaline from adrenal glands heart rate and BP increase decrease in blood supply to limbs nicotine increases the risk the blood clotting highly addictive stimulates nerve endings to release dopamine which is pleasurable. Highly addictive
Carbon monoxide
Buying to haemoglobin in red blood cells forming carboxyhaemoglobin so haemoglobin Cannot be fully oxygenated quantity of oxygen transported 10% less in a smoker may also damage the line of the arteries less oxygen supply to the heart muscle putting a strain on it especially during exercise. Damage to artery walls may lead to the buildup of fatty tissue and reduction of blood flow causing coronary heart disease or a stroke
Disease
And illness or disorder of the body or mind that leads to poor health associated with a set of signs and symptoms
Incidence of a disease
The number of people diagnosed over a certain period of time
Prevalence of a disease
The number of people you have the disease at any one time
epidermic
Occurs when there is a sudden increase in the number of people with a disease
Pandemic
Occurs when there is an increase in the number of cases throughout the continent or across the world
Cholera caused by
Vibrio cholerae
Bacteria
Malaria caused
Plasmodium
Protoctist
Hiv caused by
Human immunodeficiency virus
Tb caused by
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
M bovis
Measles caused by
Morbillivirus
Smallpox caused by
Variola virus
vector
An organism which carries a disease from one person to another or from an animal to human
Treating malaria
Prophylactic preventative drugs stop infection can we take a before during and after visit where malaria is endemic
Antigen
A substance that is for into the body and stimulates an immune response
Antibody
Are glycoprotein made by plasma cells derived from B lymphocytes secreted in response to an antigen the variable region is complimentary in shape to antigen
Immune response
Series of responses of the body to the entry of a foreign antigen involves lymphocytes and phagocyte
Non-self
Any substance or sell recognised by the immune system as being foreign and will stimulate and immune response
Self
Substances produced by the body that the immune system does not recognise as foreign so do not stimulate and immune response
Types of phagocytes
Neutrophils
Macrophages
Memory cells on the basis of
Immunological memory
Antibody structure
Globular glycoproteins with Quaternary structure form group of plasma proteins called immunoglobulins consist of four polypeptide chain is too long or heavy chains and too short or light chains each molecule has two identical antigen binding sites which are formed by bad light and heavy chains the sequence of amino acid is in the region make the specific 3-D shape which form the variable region
Two chains are held together by disulphide bonds
Function of antibodies
Combined with viruses and bacterial toxins preventing them entering or damaging cells antibodies attach to flagella of bacteria making them less active and easier to For phagocyte to engulf
Antibodies with multiple antigen binding sites cause agglutination of bacteria reducing chance of spread
Some antibodies together with other molecules punch holes in cell walls are bacteria causing them to burst when they absorb water
Antibodies coat bacteria make it easier for phagocytes to ingest phagocytes have receptor proteins for polypeptide chain is antibodies combined with toxins neutralising them and making them harmless these antibodies are called antitoxins
T lymphocytes
Have specific cell-surface receptors similar to antibodies they activated when they encounter an antigen on the sale of the host cell and the host cell displays the antigen on that cell service as a help signal display of antigens is known as antigen presentation T cells have complimentary receptors to the antigen respond by dividing to increase the number
Help at T cells
When activated they release homo like cytokines that stimulate appropriate B cells to divide divide into plasma cells and secrete antibodies some T-helper cells secrete cytokines that stimulate macrophages to carry out phagocytosis more vigorously
Killer t cells
Search the body the cells that have become invaded by pathogens and I’ll displaying for an anti-Jens they attach themselves to the surface of infected cells and secrete toxic substances such as hydrogen peroxide killing the body cells and the passages inside
Someone gets infected with a fast acting fatal disease and the white blood cells can’t react in time what happens
I get injected with antitoxin a preparation of human antibodies collect it from blood donors have recently been vaccinated against the disease such as tetanus
Active immunity
Immunity gained one and auntie Jen enters the body and an immune response because where antibodies are produced by plasma cells
Passive immunity
Immunity gained without an immune response antibodies are injected or passed from mother to child across the placenta or in breast milk
Natural immunity
Gained by being infected or by receiving antibodies from the mother across the placenta
Artificial immunity
Immunity gained either by vaccination or by injecting antibodies
vaccination
Giving a vaccine containing antigen is for disease added by injection or by mouth in order to produce immune response and memory cells
Vaccinating a large number of people at the same time
Herd immunity
Minor changes in the auntie Jen
Called antigenic drift minor changes still recognised by memory cells
Serious changes an antigen structure
Antigenic shift no longer recognised
No vaccine for protoctists such as malaria plasmodium
This is due to pathogen is being eukaryotes with many more genes in the bacteria and viruses with many hundreds of thousands of Antigens on the cell surface plasmodium passes through three stages in its life-cycle while in the human each stage has specific antigens
Antigenic concealment
When plasmodium and his liver cells or some parasitic worms conceal them sells by covering their bodies in host proteins meaning that antigens aren’t able to be recognised
Why was the smallpox eradication program successful
Virus was stable did not mutate vaccine was made from a harmless train it was effective because it was live vaccine was freeze dried and can we count that high temperatures so was useful in tropics infected people are easy to identify vaccine easy to administer smallpox virus did not linger in body after infection did not in fact animals
Disease with the body attacks itself
Autoimmune diseases
Example of an autoimmune disease
Myasthenia gravis
Targets neuromuscular junction is between motoneurons and skeletal muscle cells motor neurons transmit nerve impulses to muscle cells where they release acetylcholine a signalling molecule binds with receptor proteins stimulating sodium channels to open and move ions through membrane. Result in muscle contractions people with MGG have T helper cells specific service receptors and under certain conditions sell similar clean of the cells to secrete antibodies financial receptor I’m looking at the transmission of impulses from motor neurons muscle fibres absorb receptor Ab complex and destroy them. Without acetylcholine receptors muscle cells do not receive stimulation and because the cells unstimulated muscle she starts to break down
Homologous chromosome
A pair of chromosomes in a diploid cell to have the same structure as each other with the same jeans at the same loci form bivalent in the first division of meiosis
Gene
A length of DNA that codes for a particular protein
Allele
A particular variety of Gene
Locus
The position at which a particular gene is found on a particular chromosome the same gene is always found the same locus
Diploid
A cell the possesses to complete sets of chromosomes2n
Haploid
A cell that possesses one complete set of chromosomes n
Mitosis and meiosis early prophase
Crime is owns start to appear as chromatin coils up become shorter and thicker and centrosomes replicate
Mitosis late prophase
Nuclear envelope disappears nucleolus disappears Centrosomes moved towards opposite ends of nucleus where they form spindle
Metaphase mitosis
Sentries I’m reaches a poll organises production of microtubules crime is owns lineup across the equator the Spindle attached by the centromeres is to the spindle
Mitosis anaphase
Chromatids move to opposite poles sentiments first pulled by microtubules
Mitotis telophase
The chromatids have reached the polls of the Spender now uncoil nuclear envelope reforms nucleolus reforms remains of spindle breakdown cytokinesis occurs and cell surface membrane Splits
Meiosis middle prophase one
homologous chromosomes pair up in synapsis called the bivalent centrosomes moved opposite ends of nucleus
Meiosis late prophase one
Nuclear envelope breaks up crossing over may occur nucleolus disappears
Spindle is formed
Point where crossing over occurs
Chiasmata
Meiosis metaphase one
Bivalence lineup across the equator of spindle attached by centromeres spindle formed
Meiosis anaphase one
Whole chromosome moves towards opposite end of spindle breaking bivalent centimetres first pulled by microtubules
Telphase 1
Nuclear envelope reforms cytokinesis chromosomes have reached poll of spindle
Meiosis Prophase 2
Nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear centrosomes and centrioles replicates and move to opposite poles
Meiosis metaphase to
Chromosomes line up separately across Equator spindle
Meiosis anaphase to
Centimetres divide and spindle microtubule pull chromatids to opposite poles
Meiosis Telophase 2
Nuclear envelope reform nucleus reform cytokinesis cell splits into for haploid daughter cells
Formation of mail gametes
Spermatogenesis
Formation of female gametes
Oogenesis
Order of production of mail garments
Spermatogonia
Primary spermatocytes
Secondary spermatocytes
Haploid spermatids maturing to spermatozoa
Order production of female gametes
Oogonia
Primary oocyte
Secondary oocyte
Much longer process with waiting stages inside ovaries
Genotype
The alleles possessed by an organism
Homozygous
Having to identical alleles of a gene
Heterozygous
Having two different alleles of the gene
Phenotype
Characteristics resulting from interaction between is genotype and its environment
Dominant allele
One he’s affect on the phenotype of the heterozygote is identical to its effect in a homozygote
Recessive allele
One that is only expressed when no dominant allele is present
co dominant allele is
Both have an effect on the phenotype over heterozygous organism
F1 generation
Offspring resulting from the cross between a homozygotes dominant and homozygotes recessive
F to generation
The offspring resulting from across between two F1 organisms
A test cross
A genetic cross where an organism showing a characteristic caused by dominant allele is crossed with an organism that is homozygotes recessive used to determine whether the first organism is homo or heterozygous
Structural genes
Genes that code a protein required by a cell
Regulatory jeans
Jeans that code from proteins that regulate the expression of other jeans
Repressible enzyme
Synthesis can be prevented by binding repressor protein to specific site called an operator on a bacteriums DNA
Inducible enzyme
Synthesis because only when the substrate is present transcription of the gene occurs as a result of the inducer the enzyme substrate interacting with the protein produced by the regulatory Jean
Fitness
The capacity of an organism to survive and transmit it’s genotype to its offspring
Testing for non reducing sugar
Add hydrochloric acid then sodium hydrogencarbonate
Magnification
The number of times larger and images then the real size of the object
Eyepiece graticule
Imaginary scale
Stage micrometer
1mm calibrate eyepiece graticule
