Biology Flashcards
Macromolecule
Large biological molecules such as a protein polysaccharide or nucleic acid
Monomer
Simple molecules used as a basic building blocks of the synthesis of a polymer usually joined by condensation reactions
Polymer
Try molecule made from similar repeating subunits join together in a chain
Maltose
A glucose times two
sucrose
Alpha glucose and beta fructose
Transport sugar in plants
Common shop sugar
lactose
Glucose and galactose
Sugar In milk important for babies
Polysaccharides
Are not sugars
Glucose in cells
Implants stored as starts and glycogen and animals as if it accumulated in sells it would dissolve and make the contents of the cell to concentrated seriously affecting osmosis reactive molecule
Storage polysaccharides
Convenient compact inert an insoluble
Starch
Amylose and amylopectin
Amylose
Condensation reaction between alpha glucose molecules bonds between carbon one and carbon for curve chains and helical structures
amylopectin
One and four linked alpha glucose molecules shorter change then analyse and branch out to the side branches form one and six linkages
Glycogen
Chains of one and four link alpha glucose with 16 linkages forming branches more branched than amylopectin glycogen molecules clumped together to form granules
Celulose
Structural roll mechanically strong polymer of beta glucose to form a glycosidic bond one molecule must be rotated 180° to make 0H group next to each other the phone glycocin it bond
Why are Celulose stronger
0H grapes weekly attracted to oxygen atoms in the glucose rain and the OH great in neighbouring molecules forming hydrogen bonds individually week but so many conform that collectively they are very strong. Celulose molecules become tightly crossed lent to phone bundles good microfibrils how together and bundles called fibres by hydrogen bonding
Cellulose function
In cell walls several layers of fivers running in different directions to increase strength Celulose makes up 20 to 40% of the average so other molecules help to Crossling fivers acting like a glue. Celulose has high tensile strength similar to steal very difficult to stretch a break can withstand large pressures as a result of osmosis help provide support the plant by making tissues rigid and responsible to sell expansion during growth arrangement if I was determined shape of the cell free permeable
Lipids
Group of chemicals all organic molecules insoluble in water that’s a solid at room temperature oils a liquid at room temperature. Monomers are fatty acids and glycerol
Unsaturated lipids
Do not contain maximum possible amount of hydrogen double bonds by fatty acids are lipids melt more easily most oils unsaturated if more than one double bond it’s known as polyunsaturated if only one it’s mono unsaturatedanimal lipids often saturated and occurs fats the plant that is often unsaturated and occur is oil such as Oliver and flower oil
Bonding and lipids
The reaction between an acid in an alcohol produce a chemical known as an ester the chemical link between acid and alcohol is an ester bond
Three form in a condensation reaction releasing three H2O
Triglycerides
Most common letters lipids three hydroxyl group’s each undergo a condensation reaction with a fatty acid forming three Ester bonds
Roles of triglycerides
Energy reserves as rich and carbon hydrogen bonds even richer than carbohydrates and will yield more energy on oxidation in the same massive carbohydrate has a high calorie van you advantage of free storage product stored in many places in human body acts as an insulator lobby in Wales sort of buoyancy antimetabolic source of water when oxidising respiration converted to carbon dioxide and water
Proteins
Made up of amino acid’s have a central carbon atom bonded to an amine group NH2 and carboxylic acid group C00H that component always bonded to the carbon atom is called the R group there are 20 different kinds in the proteins of living organisms all with different r groups
How do amino acid’s join
One losers a hydroxyl group from its carboxylic acid and the adjacent leases the hydrogen atom from its amine group forming a peptide bond and water
Carbon atom bonds with nitrogen atom of the second
Went to amino acid’s join
A dipeptide forms any number of amino acid can be added to the chain in a series of condensation reactions I’m on if you’re made of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Is called a only peptide a macromolecule a complete protein molecule may contain one polypeptide chain will have two more interacting with each other
Breaking down polypeptides
Broken down into Mina asses by breaking peptide bonds in hydrolysis reaction happens naturally and stomach and small intestines during digestion. Protein molecules in food a hydrolysed into Mina asses before being absorbed into the blood
Primary structure of protein
The sequence in which particular amino acid our joint thousands of different possibilities. Simply the polypeptide chain of a protein
Secondary structure of proteins
Amino acid’s have a fact on each other due to hydrogen bonding between the oxygen of the CEO group of one amino acid and the hydrogen on the aim in group of another can hold together in family coiled alpha helix or looser straight to shape beater pleated sheet. Hydrogen bonds can hold structures together but easily broken by high temperature and pH changes some protein show no regular arrangement
Tertiary structure
The compact structure of a protein molecule resulting from 3-D coiling of the already folded chain of amino acid’s held an exact science by bonds between amino acid in different parts of the chain the shape of the molecules are very precise
Bonds holding together proteins
Hydrogen bonding disulphide bonds SH and HS the two hydrogens are released for me disulphide bonds ionic bond between ionised NH3+ and COO minus and we can hydrophobic interactions between nonpolar R groups as the repelled by water environment around them
Quaternary structure
Interactions of more than one polypeptide chain change held together by same forward have a bond as in tertiary structure
Globular proteins
Proteins his molecule Kyles up into a ball shape Carl up due to nonpolar hydrophobic our groups pointing into the centre of the molecule away from water usually soluble as outward point in groups are hydrophilic such as haemoglobin many globular proteins have rolls and metabolic reaction precise she is key to function such as in enzymes which Are globular proteins
Fibrous proteins
Do not Carl up into ball shapes phone long strands and often have structural rolls not soluble in water usually keratin forms hair nails and out of their skin and collagen is a fibrous protein
Haemoglobin
Oxygen carrying pigment in red blood cells globular proteins are made up of four polypeptide chains Quaternary structure it’s chain is a protein known as globin two types used to alpha Globin and two beta-globin nearly spherical hydrophobic our group is pointing in with a hydrophilic outwards interactions between hide your favourite all groups inside the molecule are important and Holly is correct 3-D shape out with pointing or groups are important in maintaining solubility each polypeptide chain contains haem group not made of amino acid’s each him group contains an iron atom one oxygen molecule combined with each eye an atom can carry eight oxygen atoms when bound to oxygen oxyhaemoglobin is bright red if not haemoglobin is purple
Collagen
Common fibrous protein insoluble found in skin tendons cartilage bones and teeth structural protein in humans and animals three polypeptide chains in the shape of the helix wound round each other to form a three stranded rope or triple helix how together by hydrogen bonds and some covalent bond almost every third Ameena acid is glycine as it is the smallest amino acid so the strands can lie close together cross links and covalent bonds between our groups hold many collagen molecules side by side forming fibrils. End of molecule staggered to stop weak spots fibrils Lie alongside each other forming fivers collagen is flexible but has tremendous tensile strength can withstand large forces the Achilles tendon almost pure collagen can withstand huge pulling falls collagen fivers lineup according to the falls Amos with stand in tendons they lineup in parallel bundles along the lancs in skin they phone layers and resist tensile forces as lineup in different directions
Water as a solvent
Water molecules are polar and surround polar ions and molecules and collect around them in separate them causing him to dissolve
Water as a transport medium
Transform eating with him blood in vascular tissue plants digestive excretory and lymphatic system is
Hi specific heat capacity
The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature 1 kg of water by 1°. Water has high heat capacity as lots of energy is needed to break hydrogen bonds allowing water to store more energy makes water resistant to changes in temperature useful in cells within the bodies to keep constant by chemical reactions can now operate at relatively constant rates and likely to be adversely affected by stream change the temperature also means the lakes and oceans of slow to change temperature due to environmental change providing stable habitats
Hi latent heat of vaporisation
Measure of the heat energy needed to vaporiser liquid water has high due to hydrogen bonds useful as sweating can be used to cool down without causing dehydration as a large amount of heat energy can be lost a little water of operation reverse is true from water to ice meaning less likely water will freeze advantage for aquatic organisms
Density and freezing properties
Ice is less dense than water floats on water due to hydrogen bonding
Hi surface tension and cohesion
cohesion water tends to stick to each other can move on long on broken columns through vascular tissue implants results in high surface tension alarming small organisms such as pond skaters to skate over water surface
Water as a reagent
Reagent and some chemical reactions in cells photosynthesis where sunlight separate hi Sharon from oxygen and water and hydrogen is used to provide energy for plans by making Lucas water is also essential and hydrolysis reaction indigestion
Carbohydrate general formula
Cx(H2O)y
Bonds in backbone of bases
Phosphodiester bonds
The DNA strand you read off
The sense Strand
Enzyme catalyse is joining of amino acid’s
Peptidyl transferase in small ribosome subunit
What happens when oxygen binds to haemoglobin molecule
The haemoglobin molecule distorts make it easy for a second oxygen molecule to combine more distortion makes it easier for a third molecule and then easier for a fourth and final
How does haemoglobin release oxygen
CO2+H20—–>H2CO3 carbonic acid with enzyme carbonic anhydrase carbonic acid dissociates to form H+ and HCO3- haemoglobin readily combines with hydrogen ions forming haemoglobinic acid HHB in doing so releases oxygen
What happens when haemoglobin binds with hydrogen ions
Takes H plus out of the blood and helps to maintain the pH of the blood close to neutral acting as a buffer to stop acidic H plus ions
How is carbon dioxide transported in the blood
85% as HCO3 minus ions most diffuse out carried on solution some carbon dioxide does not dissociate remains as CO2 molecules some dissolve in the plasma other molecules diffusing into red blood cells and combine with terminal amine groups of haemoglobin molecule is forming Carbaminohaemoglobin
Wall of muscle separating the heart
Septum
What and where is the patch of muscle that controls rhythm of the heart
Called the sinoatrial node on the wall of the right atrium
What causes the delay in excitation waves reaching the ventricles in the heart
The atrioventricular no node Band of fibres between atria and ventricles cannot conduct the wave. The AVN is the only part that can after a delay of 0.1 seconds pass it onto conducting fibres or purkyne tissue
The name of the muscle the contracts and relaxes automatically without impulses
Myogenic
Emphysema
Infected lungs cause Phagocytes to leave the blood and line the airways to get through the capillaries they release proteins Digesting enzyme elastase the enzyme destroys elastin in the walls of the alveoli elastin is responsible for recoil with less elastin the alveoli do not stretch and recoil therefore bronchioles collapsed during expiration trapping air in the alveoli which often burst large space appear where alveoli have burst this reduces surface area and the number of capillaries so less oxygen is absorbed by the blood
When cells break away and spread to other organs so secondary tumours form
Metastasis
Secondary tumour is known as malignant tumours
nicotine
Absorb Readily by the blood travels to the brain few seconds stimulates nervous system to reduce diameter of arterioles and to release adrenaline from adrenal glands heart rate and BP increase decrease in blood supply to limbs nicotine increases the risk the blood clotting highly addictive stimulates nerve endings to release dopamine which is pleasurable. Highly addictive
