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Biology 201 > Biology 201 Midterm Deck 1 > Flashcards

Biology 201 Midterm Deck 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

element definition

A

cannot be broken down into other substances by chem rx

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2
Q

emergent properties of compounds

A

compounds made up of elements have different properties than the individual elements

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3
Q

elements that make up 96% of living matter

A

C, H, O and N

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4
Q

atom definition

A

smallest unit of matter that retains elemental properties

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5
Q

potential energy definition

A

capacity to do work/cause change that matter has due to it’s location or structure

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6
Q

electron potential energy

A

electron shell, especially valence

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7
Q

electronegativity

A

attraction for electrons

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8
Q

functions of weak chem bonds

A

reinforce shapes of large molecules, help molecules adhere, reversibility

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9
Q

hydrogen bond definition

A

H covalently bonded in a molecule is attracted to another electronegative atom on a different molecule (ex. H2O polarity)

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10
Q

water’s essential life properties

A

cohesion, temperature moderation, expanding upon freezing, versatile solvent

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11
Q

surface tension

A

strong surface tension in water bc of hydrogen bonds

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12
Q

solution definition

A

liquid homogenous mixture of substances

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13
Q

hydration shell definition

A

ion dissolved in water and surrounded by water molecules

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14
Q

Van der waals interactions

A

asymmetric electron distribution to bring molecules close together in “hot spots”

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15
Q

three domains of life

A

bacteria, archaea, eukarya

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16
Q

eurkaryotic organisms

A

plants, animals, fungi and protists

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17
Q

all cells have:

A

cytosol, plasma membrane, chromosomes and ribosomes

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18
Q

prokaryotic cells have:

A

nucleoid (unbound DNA), cytoplasm, peptidoglycan layer (cell wall), and no membrane bound organelles

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19
Q

amphipathic molecules

A

containing hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions (phospholipids)

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20
Q

surface area equation:

A

4πr^2

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21
Q

volume of a sphere equation:

A

(4/3)πr^3

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22
Q

why are cells small?

A

metabolic requirements, slow diffusion, and surface area to volume ratio

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23
Q

eukaryotic cells contain:

A

membrane bound nucleus, cytosol (matrix of the cytoplasm), endomembrane system, semi-autonomous organelles

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24
Q

endomembrane system includes:

A

nuclear envelope, smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, plasma membrane

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25
Q

vesicles

A

membrane bubbles that transport contents around the cell or to the outside of the cell via fusion

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26
Q

endoplasmic reticulum definition

A

fluid filled tubules continuous with the out nuclear membrane

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27
Q

smooth ER functions

A

synthesis of lipids, carbohydrate metabolism (storage of glycogen), detoxification, calcium ion storage

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28
Q

rough ER functions

A

contains ribosomes which make glycoproteins, synthesis of proteins (for endomembrane system and outside cell), produces transport vesicles

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29
Q

golgi apparatus form and function

A

cisternae - flattened membraneous sacs which modify products from ER, manufacture certain macromolecules, sorts and packages materials for vesicles

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30
Q

lysosome

A

membrane bound compartment with digestive enzymes for macromolecules, and an acidic interior environment

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31
Q

phagocytosis

A

one cell engulfing another cell, forming food vacuoles

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32
Q

lysosome functions

A

digesting food vacuoles via fusion, recycling organelles and macromolecules via autophagy

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33
Q

types of vacuoles and functions:

A

food vacuoles - formed by phagocytosis
contractile vacuoles - pump excess water out of protists
central vacuole - found in plants, water filled and helps to keep turgidity

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34
Q

cytoskeleton components

A

microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments

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35
Q

cytoskeleton function

A

network of fibres in the cytoplasm which organizes and anchors structures, activities and organelles.
helps to support cell and maintain shape - no cell wall needed!

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36
Q

microtubule form and function

A

hollow rods 25 nm diameter and 25 microns long.
have dynamic instability
shape and compress cell
guide movement of organelles
separate chromosomes during cell division

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37
Q

centrosome definition

A

microtubule organizing center near the nucleus - microtubules grow out of this

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38
Q

microfilaments form and function

A

solid rods, 7nm diameter, made of double twist actin filaments
dynamic instability
bear tension, resist pulling forces
form 3D cortex structure inside plasma membrane to support cell shape

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39
Q

actin filaments function

A

in muscle cells perform contractile apparatus

allow WBC to move around looking for pathogens to kill

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40
Q

myosin

A

found in cells with motility (like muscle cells), formed in parallel with actin filaments to contract and lengthen

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41
Q

intermediate filaments

A

thick ropes of intertwined proteins
middle length between microfilaments and microtubules
not dynamic, prevent stretching of cells
ex. keratin

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42
Q

cell structures unique to plants

A

chloroplasts, large central vacuole, cell wall, plasmodesmata

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43
Q

extracellular structures:

A

cell wall of plants and extracellular matrix in animal cells

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44
Q

organisms with cell walls

A

prokaryotes, fungi, plants and some protists

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45
Q

cell wall function

A

protection, maintain shape and prevent excessive water intake

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46
Q

extracellular matrix function

A

support, adhesion, movement, regulation

can regulate cellular behavior by influencing gene activation

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47
Q

intercellular junctions

A

tight junctions where neighboring cells are pressed together and bound by proteins to avoid leaking ECM

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48
Q

fluid mosaic model

A

phospholipid bilayer studded with proteins, sandwiched by fluid compartments and phospholipids are constantly switching places

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49
Q

transmembrane protein movement

A

can move laterally but not randomly distributed

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50
Q

triglycerides are made up of:

A

glycerol backbone and three fatty acids

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51
Q

cholesterol function

A

moderates membrane fluidity at warmer and cooler temperatures

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52
Q

transmembrane protein functions:

A

transport, enzymatic activity, signaling, cell-cell recognition, intercellular joining, attachment to cytoskeleton and ECM

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53
Q

types of passive transport

A

diffusion and facilitated diffusion

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54
Q

dynamic equilibrium

A

as many molecules cross in one direction as another

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55
Q

osmosis definition

A

diffusion of water across semi permeable membrane, from area of lower solute to area of high solute

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56
Q

channel proteins

A

corridors through which specific ions or molecules can cross

ex. aquaporins and ion channels (can be gated, require stimulus)

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57
Q

carrier proteins

A

subtle conformational change that moves solute binding site across membrane, can be active or passive
is facilitated diffusion

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58
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

solute moves down it’s concentration gradient

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59
Q

active transport

A

moves solute against concentration gradient
requires energy
allows maintenance of concentration gradient different from surroundings
ex. sodium potassium pump

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60
Q

mitochondria and chloroplasts

A

derived from prokaryotes, resemble bacteria
contain free ribosomes, and circular DNA
grow and reproduce independently within cells

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61
Q

endosymbiotic theory for mitochondria and chloroplasts

A

2 different instances

engulfed bacteria became endosymbiotic

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62
Q

mitochondria form

A

cristae inner membrane folds separate intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix
cristae have large surface area with enzymes for catalyzing atp synthesis

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63
Q

first and second laws of thermodynamics

A
  1. energy can be transferred or transformed not created or destroyed
  2. every energy transfer increases entropy (disorder) of universe
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64
Q

energy in cell is used for:

A

chemical - building molecules
transport - active transport molecules
mechanical - moving cytoskeleton

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65
Q

endergonic vs exergonic

A

requiring energy, releasing energy

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66
Q

ATP

A

adenosine triphosphate

loss of phosphate group releases energy

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67
Q

how ATP powers work

A
  1. ATP has chemical energy: potential energy available for release in small packets
  2. gives P group to phosphorylated intermediate (potential energy), easy to detach
  3. product is ADP + P
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68
Q

potential energy in food comes from:

A

C-H covalent bonds
transfered in mitochondria to ATP
fat has highest energy due to highest number of C-H bonds

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69
Q

basic steps of cellular respiration

A

glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation

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70
Q

glycolysis

A

glucose broken down into 2 pyruvate
phase 1 energy investment, phase 2 energy payoff
occurs with or without O2
occurs in intermembrane space in mitochondria

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71
Q

substrate level phosphorylation

A

substrate with P group, enzyme catalyzes giving P to ADP

produces some ATP in glycolysis and citric acid cycle

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72
Q

pyruvate oxidation

A

occurs inside mitochondrial matrix
products: acetyl CoA and NADH
by product: CO2
coenzyme A required

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73
Q

krebs cycle

A

citric acid cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix
completes breakdown of pyruvate
products: 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 3H+
byproduct: 2 CO2

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74
Q

krebs cycle intermediaries

A

acetyl coA - oxaloacetate - citrate - back to oxaloacetate

NADH and FADH2 carry high energy electrons to electron transport chain

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75
Q

function of NADH and FADH2

A

electrons they provide to electron transport chain powers ATP synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation

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76
Q

electron transport chain

A

electrons move down system of proteins in the mitochondrial membrane
O2 pulls electrons down as the oxidizing agent

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77
Q

oxidation vs reduction

A

loss of electrons vs gaining electrons

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78
Q

oxidizing agent

A

molecule that accepts electrons (O), involved in redox reactions like electron transport chain

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79
Q

proton-motive force

A

H+ gradient from intermembrane space to mitochondrial matrix
couples with electron transport chain for atp synthesis

80
Q

oxidative phosphorylation powered by and products

A 
redox reactions 
28 ATP (90% of all ATP production)
81
Q

ATP produced by 1 molecule of glucose

A

32 ATP

82
Q

electron shuttle movements

A

from outside mitochondria to mitochondrial matrix, spans membranes

83
Q

anaerobic respiration

A

does not use O as the terminal electron acceptor, but still uses electron transport chain

84
Q

fermentation

A

partial degradation of sugars without O2

no electron transport chain

85
Q

photosynthesis equation

A

6CO2 + 12 H2O + Light energy —> C6H12O6 + 6O2 +6H2O

86
Q

autotroph

A

sustaining without consuming anything from other organisms, producers of organic molecules
photoautotroph - creating energy from light

87
Q

cells that contain chloroplasts

A

mesophyll cells, 30-40 in each cell

88
Q

chloroplast structure

A

double membrane, with stroma compartment in the middle
thylakoid membraneous sacs stack into grana in the stroma
in the thylakoid lumen is where photosynthesis happens

89
Q

stroma

A

semi-liquid substance with enzymes and other molecules

90
Q

photosystems II and I

A

contain chlorophyll molecules
embedded into thylakoid membranes
both have separate electron transport chains

91
Q

photons

A

energy packet waves from light with varying energy levels (electromagnetic spectrum)

92
Q

why is chlorophyll green?

A

the pigments don’t absorb green light, so it is transmitted

93
Q

structure of chlorophyll

A

magnesium at the center and with a hydrocarbon tail

94
Q

chlorophyll reaction to photons in photosystem II

A

electrons go to excited state, then fall back down releasing energy which bounces to another chlorophyll
until it reaches the reaction center P680

95
Q

P680

A

reaction center in PSII

gives excited electrons to electron acceptor, becoming P680+

96
Q

P680+

A

steals electron from H2O forming 2 H+ and O (which binds to another forming O2)
this makes H+ gradient in the thylakoid lumen
strongest oxidizing agent known

97
Q

electron transport chain in plants

A
  • PSII to cytochrome complex to PS I
  • this moves powers moving H+ ions from stroma across thylakoid membrane to thylakoid space that drives ATP synthesis later on
  • AKA linear electron flow
98
Q

P700

A

reaction center in PSI

P700+ becomes P700 after accepting electron from PSII

99
Q

ferredoxin

A

electrons fall from PSI to it, and then transfers electrons to NADP+ (reduction to NADPH)

100
Q

NADPH electrons

A

help drive the Calvin cycle and build up H+ gradient by snapping up H+ from stroma after reduced by ferredoxin

101
Q

cyclic electron flow

A

in some plants
electrons go from ferredoxin to PS I again
produces ATP but not NADPH

102
Q

chemiosmosis

A

process of diffusing ions across a semi-permeable membrane to create a concentration gradient

103
Q

plants vs animals production of ATP

A

mitochondria transfer chemical energy of food to ATP

chloroplasts transform light energy into chemical energy of ATP

104
Q

light reaction in photosynthesis redox stages:

A
  1. split H2O
  2. release O2
  3. reduce NADP+ to NADPH
  4. generate ATP via photophosphorylation
105
Q

cost of the calvin cycle per 6 CO2

A

6 CO2 requires 18 ATP and 12 NADPH

106
Q

calvin cycle location and purpose

A

in the stroma

to build sugars

107
Q

sucrose

A

1 glucose and 1 fructose

108
Q

what is starch?

A

polysaccharide storage in plants

109
Q

what is glycogen

A

polysaccharide storage in animals

110
Q

roles of polysaccharides

A

structure and energy storage

111
Q

polypeptides definition

A

unbranched polymers made up of collections of 20 different amino acids

112
Q

protein definition

A

biologically functional molecule consisting of 1 or more polypeptides

113
Q

the nonpolar amino acids

A

glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, and proline

114
Q

polar amino acids

A

serine, threonine, cysteine, tyrosine, asparagine, glutamine

115
Q

electrically charged amino acids

A

acidic (neg): aspartic acid, glutamic acid

basic (pos): lysine, arginine, histidine

116
Q

nucleic acid definition

A

DNA, chain of monomers called nucleotides

117
Q

the purine nucleotides

A

adenine and guanine

118
Q

the pyrimidine nucleotides

A

cytosine, thymine and uracil

119
Q

why is DNA a double helix

A

the hydrogen bonds holding the double strands together

120
Q

genome definition, in eukaryotes and prokaryotes

A

all the DNA in a cell

in prokaryotes it is one single DNA molecule

121
Q

chromatin

A

a complex of DNA and protein (histones) that can be condensed into chromosomes during cell division

122
Q

cell division in multicellular organisms

A

growth, repair and development

mitosis + cytokinesis

123
Q

sister chromatids

A

joined copies of original chromosome

held together by cohesin protein

124
Q

when sister chromatids separate they are called:

A

chromosomes

125
Q

interphase

A

G1, S phase, G2
All three have cell growth
only S phase has chromosomal replication
90% of cell cycle overall

126
Q

mitosis phases:

A

prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase and cytokinesis

127
Q

mitotic spindle

A

made of centrosomes, asters, and spindle microtubules
controls chromosomal movement during mitosis
in animal cells begins to form at the centrosome

128
Q

centrosome vs centromere

A

centrosome - where mitotic spindle forms

centromere - constricted area of chromosomes

129
Q

when does the centrosome replicate

A

during interphase and each moves to opposite ends of the cell during prophase and prometaphase

130
Q

aster

A

radial short array of microtubules which extend from each centrosome

131
Q

kinetochores and kinetochore microtubules

A

protein complexes that form on the centromeres where the spindle microtubules attach during prometaphase
sister chromatids move along kinetochore microtubules during anaphase

132
Q

telophase in plants

A

vesicles form a cell wall in the middle of the elongated cell

133
Q

binary fission

A

prokaryotic reproduction
DNA replicated from the origin of replication and two daughter chromosomes move apart
plasma membrane pinches and forms 2 daughter cells

134
Q

zygote

A

fertilized egg

135
Q

asexual reproduction

A

mitotic division to produce new individual

136
Q

germ line cells

A

parent cells to gametes

137
Q

autosomes

A

all the chromosomes excluding the sex chromosomes

138
Q

stages of meiosis I and II have no:

A

prometaphase

139
Q

prophase actions and how much time of meiosis it takes up:

A

chromosomes begin to condense, synapsis occurs, followed by crossing over
90% of meiosis

140
Q

synapsis and crossing over definitions

A

homologous pairs of chromosomes lining up, matching genes aligned
exchange of DNA sequences at the chiasmata
happens during prophase I

141
Q

metaphase and anaphase I

A

tetrads line up, microtubules attached to kinetochores of each chromosome
spindle pulls homologous pairs apart to separate sides

142
Q

telophase I, cell halves are haploid or diploid?

A

haploid, but sister chromatids are attached

143
Q

are sister chromatids in meiosis II genetically identical?

A

no because of crossing over

144
Q

daughter cells after meiosis are genetically related how to parent cells?

A

they are distinct from the other daughter cells and the parent cell due to crossing over

145
Q

cohesins are:

A

proteins that hold sister chromatids together during meiosis

cohesions are broken at corresponding positions for crossing over

146
Q

mechanisms for genetic diversity

A
  1. independent assortment of chromosomes
  2. crossing over
  3. random fertilization
147
Q

heredity

A

transmission of traits from one generation to the next

148
Q

character definition (heredity)

A

heritable features, not the specific variety or trait

149
Q

particulate inheritence

A

specific trait inheritance, not blending inheritance

150
Q

why did Mendel use pea plants?

A
  1. many varieties with easily distinguishable traits
  2. small, easy to grow and rapid reproduction
  3. reproductive organs can be easily manipulated
  4. self fertilizing
151
Q

hybridization

A

breeding two true breeding varieties to create hybrids

152
Q

law of segregation

A

alleles for the same character separate during gamete formation, and end up in different gametes

153
Q

monohybrid cross vs. dihybrid cross

A

1 character vs 2

154
Q

law of independent assortment

A

alleles segregate independently during gamete formation (except when located close together on the same chromosome)

155
Q

deviation from Mendelian patterns:

A
  1. incomplete dominance/recessiveness
  2. multiple alleles
  3. pleiotropy - multiple phenotypes
156
Q

incomplete dominance and codominance

A

phenotype is mixture of both parents

phenotype reflects both alleles in separate, distinguishable ways

157
Q

epistasis

A

gene at one locus alters phenotypic expression of gene at another locus

158
Q

polygenic inheritence

A

quantitative characters, an additive effect of 2 or more genes on a phenotype
ex. skin color

159
Q

rosalind franklin

A

produced photo of DNA using X-ray crystallography

160
Q

Watson and Crick

A

deduced base pairing of nucleotides

complementary nitrogenous bases

161
Q

origin of replication

A

in DNA replication, location where strands separate and open a replication bubble
1 single bubble in bacteria
many in eukaryotic cells

162
Q

DNA polymerase cannot

A

initiate synthesis of a polynucleotide, it can only add nucleotides to 3’ end

163
Q

primase

A

creates RNA primer sequence

DNA polymerase then able to build DNA sequence

164
Q

rate of elongation of DNA strand

A

500 nucleotides per second in bacteria

50 per second in humans

165
Q

how antiparallel structure affects DNA replication

A

must be done in the 5’ and 3’ direction only

166
Q

Okazaki fragments

A

lagging strand made up of fragments which are later stitched together by the DNA ligase

167
Q

transcription definition and rate

A

DNA to mRNA

40 nucleotides per second in eukaryotes

168
Q

translation definition and direction

A

polypeptide synthesis from mRNA. Occurs in ribosome in rough ER
mRNA is read 5’ to 3’

169
Q

transition from transcription to translation timing in prokaryotes and eukaryotes

A

prokaryotes translation can start before transcription finishes
in eukaryotes, RNA must travel across nuclear envelope (primary transcripts are modified to become mRNA)

170
Q

template strand

A

one of the DNA strands, complementary to RNA sequence

always the same strand for a given gene

171
Q

RNA polymerase

A

separates DNA strands starting at the promoter region, and joins RNA nucleotides
no primer needed unlike DNA polymerase

172
Q

directions of DNA and RNA synthesis

A

DNA and RNA are made 5’ to 3’ (read 3’ to 5’)

173
Q

transcription stages

A

initiation, elongation, termination

174
Q

tRNA function

A

add amino acids to growing polypeptide in a ribosome

175
Q

tRNA structure

A

amino acid attached on one end, anticodon on the other (complement to codon)

176
Q

ribosome structure

A

rRNA and protein with 3 tRNA binding sites

177
Q

point mutations and types

A

change of one base pair
substitution: replacement of a base pair with another
insertion/deletion: addition or loss of a pair, frameshift the whole sequence

178
Q

silent mutations

A

from substitution

have no effect on the codon coded for due to redundancy

179
Q

missense mutations

A

from substitution

code for a difference amino acid

180
Q

nonsense mutation

A

from substitution
change from amino acid to a stop codon
leads to nonfunctional protein

181
Q

microevolution

A

change in allelic frequency over generations via:

natural selection, genetic drift and gene flow

182
Q

population genetics vs quantitative genetics definitions

A

discontinuous distribution of traits in a population

quantitative genetics follows continuous distribution of phenotypic variation (ex. height)

183
Q

duplication of small DNA sequences

A

can increase genome size and can be less harmful than other types of mutation
duplicated genes can take on new functions via further mutation

184
Q

genetic variation in sexually reproducing organisms

A

recombination of alleles is more impactful than genetic variation via mutation
can free alleles from a shitty genetic background

185
Q

gene pool definition

A

all the alleles for all loci in a population

186
Q

fixed locus

A

a locus that all individuals in a population are homozygous for the same allele

187
Q

allelic frequency equation:

A

alleles for trait/total alleles for character

frequencies must: p + q = 1

188
Q

conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

A

no mutations, random mating, no natural selection, large population, no gene flow

189
Q

natural selection 4 premises

A
  1. differential success in reproduction
  2. heredity
  3. variation in individual characters
  4. variation of fitness in association with heritable character
190
Q

founder effect

A

example of genetic drift

a few individuals become isolated from larger population

191
Q

bottleneck effect

A

type of genetic drift

sudden reduction in population size due to change in environment

192
Q

gene flow

A

movement of alleles from one population to another

can reduce genetic variation over time

193
Q

linear electron flow

A

plant electron transport chain

194
Q

germ line cells in males and females

A

oogonium and spermatogonium

195
Q

cells that undergo meiosis I

A

primary oocyte and primary spermatocytes

196
Q

cells that undergo meiosis II

A

secondary oocyte and secondary spermatocytes

secondary oocytes are paused in metaphase II until fertilization, only finishes meiosis II if fertilized

197
Q

number of gametes in females and males from start to finish

A

4 spermatozoa in males, 1 ovum in females (after fertilization) and 2 polar bodies

Biology 201 (4 decks)

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