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Biology 201 > Bio Final New Material > Flashcards

Bio Final New Material Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Hadean eon

A

hell on earth

4.5 to 4 billions years ago

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2
Q

Archean eon

A

4 to 2.5 billion years ago
1st emergence of cellular life 3.5 bya (prokaryotic stromatolites)
O2 revolution, many prokaryotes then went extinct

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3
Q

Oxygen revolution

A

atmospheric O2 oxygen revolution 2.7 bya
due to photoautotrophic cyanobacteria (stromatolites)
many prokaryotes died as a result of O2 poisoning
second smaller O2 revolution likely due to land plants
O2 pulled Fe(III) Oxide out of the atmosphere

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4
Q

Proterozoic eon

A

2.5-.5 bya, following archaean eon
development of single celled eukaryotic organisms, and then multicellular eukaryotic organisms, and animals right at the end of the eon

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5
Q

facts that support endosymbiont theory

A

mitochondria and chloroplasts divide and have DNA structure like prokaryotic organisms
they transcribe and translate their own DNA
ribosomes are more similar to prokaryotic ones

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6
Q

oldest multicellular eukaryotes

A

1.2 billion years ago in proterozoic eon (algae)

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7
Q

what are the Ediacaran biota

A

larger and more diverse soft-bodied invertebrate eukaryotic organisms
600-535 million years ago at the end of the Proterozoic eon

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8
Q

Phanerozoic eon and sub eras

A

animals emerge, colonization of land

Eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras

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9
Q

the Cambrian explosion

A

Paleozoic era, 535 mya
sudden appearance of fossils resembling modern phyla
follows the Ediacaran biota who left no fossils

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10
Q

colonization of land, vascular plants

A

500 mya, paleozoic era
fungi, plants and animals
vascular plants 420 mya

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11
Q

why does mass extinction happen?

A

rate of species extinction increase due to disruptive global environmental changes

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12
Q

Permian extinction

A

251 mya
defines boundary between paleozoic and mesozoic eras
96% of marine animal species died
global warming due to volcanic eruptions in Siberia

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13
Q

Cretaceous mass extinction

A

65.5 mya
separates mesozoic and cenozoic era
half of all marine species and many terrestrial plants and animals
meteorite impact, dust clouds blocked sunlight and disturbed climate

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14
Q

adaptive radiation

A

rapid evolution of diversely adapted species from a common ancestor
follows mass extinctions, evolution of novel characteristics, and colonizations of new regoins

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15
Q

taxonomy

A

scientific discipline concerned with classifying and naming organisms
Linnaeus came up with the binomial classification system (Genus species)

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16
Q

Systematics is:

A

fossils, molecular data and genetics
phylogenetic trees with branch points that represent diverging species
sister taxa are groups that share an immediate common ancestor

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17
Q

phylogeny

A

evolutionary history of a species or group of related species

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18
Q

Gram negative vs gram positive in bacteria

A

gram negative: prokaryotic cell has in peptidoglycan cell wall, with plasma membranes sandwiching on either side

gram positive: prokaryotic cell has outer peptidoglycan cell wall, with plasma membrane underneath

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19
Q

prokaryotic flagellum made up of

A

motor, hook and filament sections

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20
Q

types of prokaryotes based on how they harness energy and carbon/feed:

A

phototrophs - light
chemotrophs - chemicals
autotrophs - CO2
heterotrophs - organic nutrients to make organic compounds
modes of nutrition: photoautotrophy, chemoautotrophy, photoheterotrophy, and chemoheterotrophy

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21
Q

obligate aerobe vs obligate anaerobe vs facultative anaerobe

A

obligate aerobe - requires O2 for cellular respiration
obligate anaerobe - poisoned by O2, used fermentation or anaerobic respiration
facultative anaerobe - can survive with or without O2

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22
Q

nitrogen fixation

A

some prokaryotes can convert N2 (g) into NH3 - fixing it so that it can be utilized by other organisms

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23
Q

Protist types by nutrition

A

span 4 supergroups of eukaryotic domain
algae - photoautotrophic
protozoa - chemoheterotrophic, phagocytosis
fungus-like - chemoheterotrophic, nutrients from environment

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24
Q

Protist types by locomotion

A

flagellates - ex. euglena
ciliates - ex. paramecium
amoeboid - ex. amoeba
gliding - ex. slime molds

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25
Q

diatoms

A

unicellular algae with chloroplasts, component of phytoplankton
covered in silicon dioxide called a frustule
dead diatoms fall to the sea bed and fix carbon
diatomaceous earth - cell walls make sediment used in toothpaste, detergent and soundproofing

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26
Q

Euglenids

A

autotrophic and heterotrophic (mixotrophic), contains chloroplasts
eye spots
pellicle - proteinaceous strip of microtubules creating slug-like mobility

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27
Q

Oomycetes

A

have hyphae and produce sporangia but are protists

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28
Q

radiolarians

A

radial pseudopodia surrounded by cytoplasm
engulf foods using pseudopods
cytoplasm brings food into main part of cell

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29
Q

origin of ancestral green algae

A

origin of land plants, 470 mya

origin of vascular plants 425 mya

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30
Q

adaptations for plants to survive on land

A

photosynthetic eukaryote able to survive and reproduce on land
protection of the embryo is most important - land plants called embryophytes

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31
Q

seedless non-vascular plants

A

liverworts, hornworts and mosses

gametophyte that grows into a sporophyte

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32
Q

seedless vascular plants groups and sub groups

A

Lycophytes - mosses, quillwort

Monilophytes - ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns

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33
Q

what formed the first forests during the paleozoic era?

A

lycophytes, horsetails and ferns
increased photosynthesis removed excess CO2 from the atmosphere and contributed to global cooling at the end of the Carboniferous period (late paleozoic era)

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34
Q

what became coal?

A

decay plants from Carboniferous forests in the Paleozoic era

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35
Q

fungi early evolution

A

among the earliest colonizers on land

likely formed mutualistic relationships with plants very early on

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36
Q

key traits of fungi

A

heterotrophic and absorb nutrients from outside
use enzymes to decompose complex molecules into smaller organic molecules (ex. cellulose to lignan)
versatility of enzymes means they can be decomposers, parasites or mutualists
cell walls contain chitin

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37
Q

most common body structures of fungi:

A

multicellular filaments hyphae to make mycellium networks to max absorption
single celled - like yeasts

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38
Q

Ascomycetes

A

common name Sac Fungi
marine, freshwater and terrestrial
decomposers, parasites or mutualists
from unicellular yeasts to multicellular cup fungi and morels
sexual spores produced inside ascocarps which contain sac-like asci
25% live as lichens

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39
Q

Basidiomycetes

A

common name: club fungi
decomposers of wood
club-like structure called basidium - transient diploid stage

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40
Q

Lichen

A

mutualism between photosynthetic organism (cyanobacteria or green algae) and fungus
algae provides carbon compounds, cyanobacteria provides carbon and nitrogen
fungus provides environment for growth

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41
Q

Organization of animals

A

Specialized cells form tissues with different functions
Tissues make up organs
Organs make up organ systems

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42
Q

Epithelial tissue description and types

A

covers outside of body, lines organs and cavities
cells are closely joined together
simple or stratified
squamous, cuboidal or columnar

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43
Q

connective tissue definition and types

A

binds and supports other tissues
sparsely packed cells in extracellular matrix (liquid, jelly or solid)
with fibers form to make: loose, cartilage, fibrous, adipose, blood and bone connective tissues

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44
Q

muscle tissue description and types

A

proteins actin and myosin filaments enable muscular contraction in response to nerve signals
skeletal (motor neurons), smooth and cardiac muscle

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45
Q

nervous tissue description and types

A

receipt, processing and transmission of information
neurons - send and receive
glia - nourish, insulate and replenish neurons
Schwann cells - insulate neurons

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46
Q

the body requires:

A

organic molecules for chemical energy - carbs, proteins and lipids
organic molecules for building and maintaining - carbs, proteins and lipids
essential nutrients - must be supplied by the diet

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47
Q

the essential amino acids (PVT TIM HLL)

A

phenylalanine + tyrosine, valine, tryptophan
threonine, isoleucine, methionine + cysteine
histidine, leucine, lysine

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48
Q

thiamine major function in the body

A

coenzyme used in removing CO2 from organic compounds

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49
Q

Niacin major function in the body

A

component of NAD+ and NADP+

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50
Q

Riboflavin major function in the body

A

component of FAD

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51
Q

Pantothenic acid major function in body

A

Component of coenzyme A which oxidizes pyruvate in citric acid cycle

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52
Q

mammalian digestive system

A

alimentary canal and accessory glands secreting digestive juices through ducts
peristalsis pushes food along
sphincters regulate movement of material between compartments

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53
Q

saliva contains

A

mucous - water, salts, glycoproteins, antimicrobial agents

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54
Q

bolus

A

chewed food ball that enters the pharynx, then to the esophagus

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55
Q

interior surface of stomach

A

highly folded with pits into gastric glands

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56
Q

gastric glands contain

A

mucous cells - lubrication and protection of lining
chief cells - secret pepsinogen
parietal cells - secret HCl, which activates pepsinogen into pepsin

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57
Q

intestinal wall

A

large circular folds, covered in villi

brush border: villi have simple columnar epithelial cells, blood capillaries, and lacteal

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58
Q

B6 major function in the body

A

coenzyme used in amino acid metabolism

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59
Q

Biotin major function in the body

A

coenzyme in synthesis of fat, glycogen and amino acids

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60
Q

folic acid major function in body

A

coenzyme in nucleic acid and amino acid metabolism

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61
Q

B12 major function in body

A

production of nucleic acids and RBC

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62
Q

Vitamin C major function in body

A

used in collagen synthesis and antioxidant

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63
Q

vitamin A major function in body

A

component of visual pigments, maintenance of epithelial tissues

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64
Q

vitamin D major function in body

A

aids in absorption of calcium and phosphorus

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65
Q

vitamin E major function in body

A

antioxidant, protects cell membranes

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66
Q

Vitamin K major functions in body

A

important in blood clotting

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67
Q

lacteal vessel

A

connected to lymphatic system inside villi

for fat transport via chylomicrons through the subclavian veins into circulatory system

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68
Q

gizzard

A

muscular organ filled with rocks to crush seeds in the stomach of birds and crocs

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69
Q

the advantage of a 2 ended digestive system

A

can have specialized regions that carry out digestion and absorption

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70
Q

covalently bonded P groups on ATP

A

3

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71
Q

hydrocarbons are

A

non-polar, hydrophobic

fatty acid chains

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72
Q

functions of plant roots

A

anchoring, absorbing minerals and water, storing carbs

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73
Q

taproot system

A

main vertical root from which lateral roots grow
arise from radicle embryonic root
found in eudicots and gymnosperms

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74
Q

DNA is present in plants in which organelles?

A

nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts

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75
Q

is ATP an electron acceptor?

A

no

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76
Q

where does ATP synthesis happen?

A

in the thylakoid and mitochondrial membrane

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77
Q

independent assortment happens when? law of segregation?

A

meiosis I, when homologous pairs line up and either pair can sort to either side
law of segregation refers to alleles sorting into different gametes during meiosis II

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78
Q

eudicots

A

flowering plants that have 2 seed leaves upon germination

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79
Q

angiosperms make up what percent of our diet overall

A

80%, grains and tubers

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80
Q

organs of a plant by system

A

shoot system: leaves and stems

root system: roots

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81
Q

adventitious roots

A

fibrous root system that arises from stems and leaves
found in monocots
lateral roots arise from them

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82
Q

what are root hairs

A

tubular extensions of epidermal cells

increase surface area of the root for water and nutrient absorption

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83
Q

types of modified root adaptations

A

prop roots - stability
storage roots - extra starch storage
green roots - increase photosynthesis
pneumatophores - grow above water to increase oxygen absorption (ex, mangroves)

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84
Q

main stem structures

A

alternating system of nodes where leaves are attached
internodes in between
axillary buds at the nodes for lateral shoots or branches
apical bud or terminal bud near shoot tip for elongation

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85
Q

apical dominance

A

maintains dormancy in most axillary buds

this is why we trim back plants to increase axillary growth

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86
Q

types of modified stems

A

rhizomes - lateral expansion and storage
stolons - lateral expansion
tubers - storage

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87
Q

parts of a leaf and types of modified leaves

A

blade and petiole
compound leaf (many leaves on 1 petiole) and simple leaf (1 leaf 1 petiole)
the main photosynthetic organ
modified leaves: spines, tendrils, reproductive leaves and storage leaves

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88
Q

dermal tissue functions, herbaceous and woody

A

defense against physical damage, pathogens and water loss
herbaceous plants have epidermis covered in waxy cuticle
woody plants have periderm

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89
Q

specialized epidermal cells

A

guard cells with stomata

root hairs in roots

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90
Q

Xylem

A 
water and mineral transport
tubular, elongated dead cells
lignified secondary cell walls with pits
2 types: tracheids (longer, all xylem) and vessel elements (short and wide with perforated plates, angiosperms)
multiples to create the rings of a tree
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91
Q

Phloem

A

made of sieve tube elements, alive but no organelles
companion cell organelles serve both cells
sieve plates on the ends - porous end walls for fluid flow

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92
Q

ground tissues

A

cells for storage, photosynthesis and support
cortex - external to vascular tissue
pith - internal to vascular tissue

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93
Q

pericycle

A

outermost layer of vascular cylinder of a root

origin point of lateral roots

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94
Q

why are mesophyll cells spread out

A

air pocket space like lungs for gas exchange

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95
Q

latewood and earlywood

A

diameter of xylem cells based on season

earlywood - diameter increases in spring to bring in more water

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96
Q

lateral meristems embryonic tissue in woody plants

A

vascular cambium - outside secondary xylem, secondary vascular tissue
cork cambium - underneath cork, secondary dermal tissue

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97
Q

bark is made up of

A

secondary phloem and layers of periderm

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98
Q

heartwood and sapwood

A

contains secondary xylem
sapwood is lighter outer part of the trunk with more vascular flow and storage
heartwood is the center wood

99
Q

what are flowers?

A

reproductive shoots of angiosperm sporophytes

100
Q

stamen and carpel parts

A

(top to bottom)
stamen: filament and anther
carpel (pistil if multiple): stigma, style, ovary with ovules

101
Q

what is a seed?

A

a fertilized ovule in a carpel

102
Q

respiratory system pathway

A 
nares
pharynx
larynx
trachea
bronchi
bronchioles
lobule of alveoli
103
Q

alveoli described and types

A

with surrounding well fenestrated blood capillaries gas exchange
moist membranes to facilitate diffusion
oxygen diffuses into capillaries
CO2 diffuses into alveoli
have alveolar macrophages to patrol them
type I - gas exchange
type II - surfactant secreting to keep surfaces from sticking

104
Q

pulmonary artery (arteriole) vs pulmonary vein (venule)

A

pulmonary artery carries oxygen poor blood towards the lungs

pulmonary vein carries oxygen rich blood away from the lungs

105
Q

air pressure in lungs with respiration

A

exhalation - diaphragm relaxes (moves up), pressure increases as volume decreases
inhalation - diaphragm contracts (moves down), air pressure decreases (air rushes in)

106
Q

why are alveoli so susceptible to infection?

A

because they have no cilia

have alveolar macrophages to patrol and eliminate contaminants

107
Q

what happens to hemoglobin when CO2 levels rise?

A

loses affinity for O2 and releases more into the cells

108
Q

hemoglobin

A

respiratory pigment - 4 polypeptide protein
300 million per RBC
4 heme groups to 1 hemoglobin, heme groups bind iron which binds O2
used by most vertebrates and some invertebrates

109
Q

CO2 transport out of body percentages

A

23% binds to amino acid ends of hemoglobin (signaling release of O2)
70% transported as HCO3- (bicarb) in blood
7% in blood plasma

110
Q

what is nitrogenous waste, types (including cost and toxicity)

A

breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids
ammonia - low cost to produce, highly toxic, mostly marine animals
urea - medium cost, medium toxicity, mammals, amphibians, sharks and some fish
uric acid - high cost, low toxicity, reptiles, birds, insects and land snails

111
Q

where is excess nitrogen stored?

A

nowhere, that is why it is so valuable for life

112
Q

what happens to the carboxyl group of an amino acid

A

it is separated and turned into fatty acid

113
Q

protonephridia

A

network of dead end tubules connected to external openings
flame bulb - caps on ends of tubules
found in platyhelminthes

114
Q

metanephridia

A

open ended, tubules wrapped with capillary network like in nephridia
collects coelomic fluid and produces diluted urine for excretion
found in annelida

115
Q

Malpighian tubules

A

horn shaped
hemolymph washes over them due to continuous movement
filter out nitrogenous waste excreted in uric acid form
found in arthropoda

116
Q

kidney function

A

excretion and osmoregulation

117
Q

kidneys blood received

A

21% of cardiac output from left ventricle via the renal artery
about 5 cups of blood every minute to make 1mL of urine per minute

118
Q

what is the renal pelvis

A

collecting duct where nephrons drain into

at the center of the kidney

119
Q

afferent vs efferent arteriole

A

afferent towards the nephron - have smooth muscle cells to control flow to the nephrons
efferent away from the nephron

120
Q

glomerulus

A

network of blood capillaries wrapped around the nephron

121
Q

epithelial cell types along the nephron

A

proximal and distal tubules - cuboidal epithelium with many mitochondria to power reabsorption
descending and ascending arms of loop of Henle - simple squamous epithelium, not metabolically active
thick ascending loop of Henle - simple cuboidal epithelium - active transport of solutes
collecting tubule - simple cuboidal epithelium that grow into simple columnar

122
Q

diversity of circulatory systems

A

gastrovascular cavities (Platyhelminthes), open circulatory system (hemolymph in arthropoda) and closed circulatory system (blood in chordates)

123
Q

a true circulatory system has

A

a circulating fluid, a set of interconnecting vessels, and a pump

124
Q

phylum that have a closed or open circulatory system

A

closed: chordata and annelida
open: mollusca (except cephalopods) and arthropoda

125
Q

circulatory system functions

A

transport of gases, nutrients, wastes and hormones
regulation of body temperature by directing flow to and from the extremities
protection against infection

126
Q

elements of the vertebrate cardiovascular system

A

heart - muscular pump
blood vessels - tube network through which blood moves (arteries from heart, veins to heart)
blood - plasma 55% and cells, fluid that circulates

127
Q

artery construction

A

resistant walls made of several tissue layers (endothelium, smooth muscle and connective tissue)
more muscular than veins to retain shape (veins collapse)

128
Q

arterioles construction

A

can relax and constrict by smooth muscle to control blow flow
relaxed - increase blood flow and vice versa

129
Q

capillaries construction

A

in all parts of the body
1 RBC width, 1 cell thickness
no cell is more than 4-6 cells away from a capillary

130
Q

blood supply throughout the body and mechanisms

A

only 5-10% of capillaries are filled at a time
major organs are always full, other areas not

mechanisms that effect it:
constriction/dilation of arterioles
precapillary sphincters
nerve, hormone and chemically controlled

131
Q

interstitial fluid

A

fluid forced out of capillaries due to blood pressure

returns to blood capillaries or becomes lymph in lymphatic vessels

132
Q

blood pressure vs osmotic pressure throughout body

A

blood pressure is high at the arterial end of capillaries, lower at venous end
osmotic pressure into the capillaries is maintained

133
Q

veins

A

thinner walled vessels that return blood to the heart
unidirectional valves to prevent back flow
skeletal muscle contraction ensures blood flow back to heart (when you don’t move, edema happens)

134
Q

what causes edema?

A

build up of interstitial fluid due to malnutrition or a pathogen

135
Q

Order of the circulatory system in mammals (from lungs):

A 
Lungs
Pulmonary vein
Left atrium
Left Ventricle - strong
Aorta - strong
Arteries, arterioles capillaries
Inferior/Superior Vena cava
right atrium
right ventricle
pulmonary artery
lungs
136
Q

Valves of the heart

A

to prevent back flow
semilunar valves - after ventricles
atrioventricular valves - between atria and ventricles

137
Q

atria vs ventricles

A

have relatively thin walls and serve as collection chambers

ventricles have thicker walls (especially the left) and contract more forcefully

138
Q

Constituents of plasma

A

water, ions, proteins (albumin, fibrinogen, immunoglobulins), nutrients, waste, respiratory gases
pH balance: ions and albumin

139
Q

Cellular elements in blood

A

leukocytes: basophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils, neutrophils and monocytes
erythrocytes
thrombocytes - platelets

140
Q

lymphocytes types

A

B and T cells

141
Q

monocytes become

A

macrophages and dendritic cells

142
Q

innate immunity

A

barrier defenses - skin, mucous, saliva, tears, low pH of skin and digestive system

cellular defenses - neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells, eosinophils, NK cells

inflammatory response - mast cells release histamine which signals blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable, allowing neutrophils signaled to come by macrophages to pass through

143
Q

neutrophils

A

circulate in blood, attracted by signals such as from macrophages
they engulf and destroy pathogens

144
Q

macrophages

A

migrate throughout the body or accumulate in organs and tissues likely to encounter pathogens
can release signaling molecules to attract neutrophils

145
Q

dendritic cells

A

stimulate development of natural immunity

146
Q

eosinophils

A

release destructive enzymes and defend against multicellular pathogens
very low phagocytic ability

147
Q

natural killer cells

A

circulate and detect abnormal cells

release chemicals to initiate cell death to inhibit spread of virus or cancer

148
Q

lymph nodes

A

masses of defensive cells
macrophages engulf
dendritic cells migrating from interstitial fluid to lymph nodes to stimulate adaptive immune response

149
Q

Adaptive immunity

A

T cells - cell mediated immunity
B cells - humoral, antibody mediated
found only in vertebrates, specific response to pathogen recognized by receptors

150
Q

B cells types and functions

A

extracellular threats
B cell - triggered by helper T cells identifying a pathogen, become plasma cells and produce antibodies to tag pathogens in blood and lymph for destruction
Memory B cells - stimulated by memory helper T cells, remember previous pathogen exposures

151
Q

T cells types and function

A

intracellular threats
helper T cells - trigger cytotoxic T cells, turns into active form and memory T cells

active cytotoxic T cells - destroy infected body cells
memory cytotoxic T cells - remember pathogen to act more quickly and become active cytotoxic T cells

152
Q

exocrine vs endocrine glands

A

exocrine release chemicals to the external environment (including gastrointestinal cavity), via ducts
endocrine releases chemicals to blood capillaries or extracellular fluid

153
Q

endocrine glands examples and what they do

A

they are a collection of endocrine cells without a duct
secrete hormones directly into surrounding fluid

pineal
hypothalamus
thyroid
parathyroid
ovaries/testes
pituitary (anterior and posterior)
adrenal (medulla and cortex)
pancreas (endo and exo)
154
Q

endocrine signaling vs nervous system signaling

A

endocrine - hormones, slower but longer-acting responses
ex. reproduction, development, energy metabolism, growth and behavior
signal goes everywhere (only cells with receptors respond)

nervous system - high speed electrical signals
ex. regulate other cells, muscle cells and endocrine cells
signal to specific location

155
Q

signals are classified by

A

secreting cell and route taken

ex. endocrine signaling - via blood stream/hemolymph
ex. neuroendocrine signaling - neuron releases neurohormones to endocrine tissue, releases hormones

156
Q

paracrine and autocrine

A

paracrine - short distance

autocrine - within cell signaling

157
Q

posterior pituitary gland only

A

receives hormones, does not produce them

ADH and oxytocin leave from there

158
Q

pheromones

A

chemicals released into the environment

functions: marking trails, defining territory, warning predators, attracting mates

159
Q

multiple effects of hormones

A

based on different receptors for the same hormone

and different signal transduction pathways

160
Q

secretin signaling pathway

A

low pH of duodenum from chyme from stomach
S cells in duodenum secrete secretin, which targets the pancreas
pancreas secretes bicarbonate ions into the duodenum to neutralize pH

161
Q

oxytocin signaling pathway from suckling

A

suckling signals sensory neuron signal to hypothalamus/posterior pituitary
neurosecretory cell produces oxytocin
targets mammary glands smooth muscle
milk is released

162
Q

endocrine glands of the human brain

A

hypothalamus (above), small ball is posterior pituitary, big ball is anterior pituitary
posterior pituitary - stores and secretes hormones made in the hypothalamus
- releases oxytocin (milk secretion in mammary glands) and ADH (fluid balance in excretory system, increases aquaporins in the nephron, alcohol and caffeine inhibit ADH)
anterior pituitary - makes and releases hormones under hypothalamus direction

163
Q

anterior pituitary hormones

A 
FSH and LH - ovaries/testes
TSH - thyroid
ACTH - adrenal cortex
prolactin - mammary glands
MSH - melanocytes
GH - liver, bones, other tissues
164
Q

parathyroid gland

A

4 glands behind the thyroid
regulation of calcium ion concentration (neural signaling)
PTH hormone - signals Ca2+ release from bones and Ca2+ reuptake from kidneys (and vitamin D activation for Ca uptake in the intestines)

165
Q

pancreas blood sugar pathway

A

blood glucose rises - beta cells release insulin - insulin increases transport of glucose to cells and the liver to be stored as glycogen
blood glucose falls - alpha cells release glucagon - glucagon promotes glycogen breakdown and release of glucose into the blood stream

166
Q

short term stress pathway

A

nerve impulse from hypothalamus to spinal cord, to adrenal medulla (derived from neuronal tissue)
adrenal medulla produces epinephrine and norepinephrine
glycogen broken down to glucose
increase blood pressure, breathing rate, metabolic rate
changes in blood flow to increase alertness, decrease digestive, excretory and reproductive systems

167
Q

long term stress pathway

A

releasing hormone from hypothalamus to anterior pituitary
ACTH from anterior pituitary to adrenal cortex, which releases mineral corticoids and glucocorticoids
mineral corticoids: retain sodium ions and water, increase blood volume and pressure
glucocorticoids: proteins and fats converted to glucose (blood sugar increase), partial suppression of immune system

168
Q

types of asexual reproduction

A

budding fission - new individuals arise as outgrowths of existing ones (ex. sea anemone)
fragmentation - breaking into pieces, which turn into adults (ex. flatworms)
parthenogenesis - development of new individual from unfertilized egg (ex. bees)

169
Q

sexual fertilization requires

A 
critical timing (pheromones) and courtship behavior 
external - eggs fertilized in environment
internal - sperm left on or near female reproductive tract, fertilization inside
170
Q

spermatheca

A

sperm storage in female flies

171
Q

key menstrual cycle hormonal effects

A

FSH and LH from anterior pituitary gland stimulate follicle growth
Estradiol secreted by growing follicle, peaks before ovulation
LH surge at ovulation to release secondary oocyte
progesterone produced by corpus luteum to thicken endometrium
when fertilized egg does not embed, menstruation happens

172
Q

menstruation hypothalamus and anterior pituitary inhibitors and stimulators

A

hypothalamus inhibited by combo of estradiol and progesterone
hypothalamus stimulated by high levels of estradiol (which leads to peak of LH)
anterior pituitary inhibited by low levels of estradiol

173
Q

axon hillock

A

cone shaped base of an axon
high density of membrane proteins
voltage gated
enough ions altering electrical balance of cell triggers opening of ion channels, and boosts signal even further to trigger electrical current down axon

174
Q

synaptic terminal

A

synapses at end of axon that send neurotransmitters across synapse to another cell (neuron, muscle or gland)

175
Q

glia

A

cells that nourish and/or insulate neurons
in the brain they are called ogliodendrocytes
in the PNS called Schwann cells

176
Q

node of Ranvier

A

node between Schwann cells/myelin sheath

177
Q

types of neurons and types of synapses

A

sensory - receive external or internal stimuli
interneurons - integrate info
motor neurons - connect to skeletal muscle
synapses: neuromuscular junction, neuroglandular synapses

178
Q

membrane potential

A

a difference in electrical charge across plasma membrane
resting membrane potential is around -70mV
inside of neuron is more negative than the outside (lots of proteins)

179
Q

Energy usage of Na-K pump

A

70% used for Na-K pump in nervous system
Na+ concentration higher outside the cell, K+ concentration higher inside cell
to continuously restore resting membrane potential

180
Q

how a stimulus starts a nerve signal transmission

A

sensory signal stimulates opening of Na+ in neuron
membrane potential rises to -55mV which is the threshold
once it reaches the threshold, it opens the axon hillock voltage-gated ion channels
which brings the membrane potential to the action potential to then send an electrical current down axon

181
Q

what happens at the presynaptic membrane of an axon?

A

current runs down axon and opens voltage gated Ca2+ channels in presynaptic membrane
which triggers release of neurotransmitters in vesicles
neurotransmitters cross synaptic cleft to the postsynaptic membrane
there are ligand gated channels on the postsynaptic membrane where neurotransmitters bind to open ion channels on the next neuron

182
Q

how does the body increase the chance of a nervous signal sending?

A

increased branching of the synapses
can’t change axon, but can increase synaptic branching
increased triggering of a signal increases protein synthesis for channels
2 active synapses on a post synaptic cell strengthens post synaptic response

183
Q

definition of ecology

A

study of interaction between organisms and the environment
distributions of organisms and their abundance
from a individual to global scale

184
Q

organismal ecology

A

studies structure, physiology and behavior (animals) meet environmental challenges
physiological, evolutionary and behavioral ecology

185
Q

Population level ecology

A

groups of individuals of the same species living together in an area
factors affecting population size over time

186
Q

Community level ecology

A

community of different species

effect of interspecies interactions on community structure and organization

187
Q

ecosystem level ecology

A

community of organisms in an area and the abiotic factors they interact with
emphasis on study of energy flow, chemical cycling between biotic and abiotic

188
Q

Landscape level ecology

A

a mosaic of connected ecosystems

focus on exchange of materials, energy and organisms across multiple ecosystems

189
Q

biosphere level ecology

A

global ecosystem, sum of all ecosystems

focus on influence of energy and materials on a biosphere level

190
Q

climate is defined by

A

long-term prevailing weather conditions

includes temperature, precipitation, sunlight and wind

191
Q

biomes, examples and what they are affected by

A

major life zones characterized by vegetation type or physical environment
ex. aquatic biomes - marine
ex. terrestrial biomes - distribution, precip, temp, plants and animals
average temperature and precipitation, and pattern of both

192
Q

latitudinal patterns of terrestrial biomes

A

tropical forest, savanna, desert, chaparral, grasslands, broadleaf forest, coniferous forest, tundra high mountains, polar ice

193
Q

how is an ecological disturbance defined?

A

event such as a storm, fire, or human activity that changes a community
many biomes rely on periodic disturbance

194
Q

tropical rain forests vs tropical dry forests

A

constant rainfall vs. seasonal rainfall

both have year round high temperatures

195
Q

Deserts

A

bands near 30° N or S of equator
low precipitation
hot or cold, temperatures vary seasonally or daily
desert plants adapted for: heat and desiccation tolerance, water storage and reduced leaf SA

196
Q

Savanna

A

bands in equatorial and subequatorial regions
fire-adapted, tolerant of drought
fires can be helpful to maintain biome

197
Q

Chapparal

A 
midlatitude
low height green plants
adapted to fire and drought also
easily used for agriculture and urbanization
ex. California
198
Q

Temperate grasslands

A

dominant plants, grasses and forbs adapted to drought and fire
taller plants
used a lot as farm land

199
Q

Northern coniferous forest

A

largest terrestrial biome

conical shape of conifers prevents snow accumulation

200
Q

temperate broadleaf forest

A

midlatitudes in northern hemisphere
significant amount of rainfall/snow
vertical layers, closed canopy, understory trees and shrub/herb layer

201
Q

Tundra

A

arctic biomes and alpine tundra
low precipitation, higher in alpine tundra
cold winters (below -30°)
permafrost - permanent layer of frozen soil restricts root growth

202
Q

Types of fires

A

Grassland fires

Forest fires: ground and crown

203
Q

how does vegetation combust

A

heat to evaporate water, heat until 200°C is reached
200°C is the volatilization of organic compounds heat
fine fuel elements light up faster, which is why grassland fires spread really fast

204
Q

Grasslands

A

grasses found almost everywhere
very drought resistant
dry off very fast
this is why grassland fires spread so fast

205
Q

ground fires

A

common in savannas

a mix of grasses and trees

206
Q

fire intensity definition

A

rate of heat released at the linear flaming front

kW m-1

207
Q

rate of heat release equation

A

I=259L^2.2

L = length of flame at the flaming front

208
Q

ground fire height vs crown fire height

A

ground fire height it lower so flame intensity is lower

crown fire height is much higher so the intensity is higher

209
Q

crown fire limiting factors and passive crown fire

A

critical ground fire intensity so that it lights the crown fuels
rate of spread (dependent on bulk density and wind)
intensity of fire horizontally

passive crown fire goes up a tree and then back down, does not spread

210
Q

electrons are carried by NADH and FADH in which stages of cellular respiration?

A

glycolysis and pyruvate oxidation (just NADH) and citric acid cycle to oxidative phosphorylation

211
Q

how is potential energy stored in food?

A

in CH bonds, cellular respiration transfers this energy to ATP

212
Q

steps of cellular respiration

A

glycolysis - cytosol, break down organic molecule into 2 pyruvate
- 2 ATP via substrate level phosphorylation
pyruvate oxidation - mitochondrial matrix, break down into acetyl coA
citric acid cycle - mitochondrial matrix, completes breakdown of molecule
- 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH
oxidative phosphorylation - mitochondrial matrix (H+ from intermembrane space)
- 28 ATP

213
Q

when is CO2 produced in cellular respiration?

A

pyruvate oxidation and citric acid cycle

214
Q

where is the electron transport chain? what happens?

A

the inner mitochondrial membrane
electrons are pulled down the chain by O2 the terminal electron acceptor
as electrons move, they pull H+ across the membrane into inter-membrane space
proton motive force - H+ rush into inner membrane space to power ATP synthase

215
Q

How does cholesterol maintain fluidity of membrane in warm and cool temperatures?

A

in warm temperatures it restrains movement of phospholipids

at cool temperatures it prevents tight packing of hydrocarbon tails

216
Q

carrier proteins are

A

passive transport, subtle conformational change to facilitate diffusion

217
Q

basic aspects of prokaryotic cell

A

no nucleus but nucleoid region where DNA is
no membrane bound organelles
cytoplasm bound by plasma membrane

218
Q

amphipathic

A

containing hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions

plasma membrane

219
Q

smooth ER functions

A

synthesizes lipids
metabolizes glycogen
detoxifies
stores calcium ions

220
Q

golgi apparatus structure and functions

A

flat membraneous cisternae sacs
modifies ER products
manufactures macromolecules
sorts and packages materials for vesicles

221
Q

autophagy

A

lysosomes release hydrolytic enzymes to break down and recycle cell’s own macromolecules and organelles

222
Q

intermediate filaments in the cell

A

no dynamic, prevent cell stretching and provide structure

223
Q

structure of chloroplast and what happens in which spaces

A

outer membrane - inter membrane space - inner membrane - stroma - grana of thylakoids - thylakoid spaces
photosystems are embedded in thylakoid membrane
H+ ion concentration built up in thylakoid space
calvin cycle in stroma

224
Q

electron acceptors in photosynthesis, what they yield

A

PS II - P680 to cytochrome complex, splits water to yield O2, P680+ is strongest oxidizing agent known
PSI - p700 to ferredoxin to form NADPH

225
Q

chemiosmosis

A

pumping H+ ions across membrane to build up a strong gradient to drive ATP synthase
into thylakoid space in plants
into inter-membrane space in animals

226
Q

what do the light reactions do?

A

split H2O (p680+)
release O2
reduce NADP+ to NADPH
generate ATP by photophosphorylation

227
Q

to make 1 sugar calvin cycle uses

A

6CO2
18 ATP
12 NADPH

228
Q

centrosome vs centromere, kinetochore, spindle definition

A

centrosome - microtubule organizing center
centromere is the constriction on a chromosome where chromatids are attached
kinetochore - protein complexes on centromeres that spindles attach to during prometaphase
spindle - centrosomes, spindle microtubules and asters (radial short microtubules)

229
Q

what are autosomes?

A

autosomes are non-sexual chromosomes

230
Q

mechanisms that contribute to genetic variation

A

independent assortment
crossing over
random fertilization

231
Q

heritable features: character vs. trait

A

character - aspect, such as eye color

trait - variation of aspect, such as brown eyes, aka alleles

232
Q

laws of inheritance

A

law of segregation - alleles go into separate gametes during meiosis, so only 1 from each parent is fertilized
- visible from single character punnet square
law of independent assortment - pairs of alleles segregate independently (only genes on different chromosomes)
- visible from multi-character cross

233
Q

multiplication rule of inheritence

A

probability that 2 or more independent events will happen together is the product of individual probabilities

234
Q

integumentary system and functions

A

skin and appendages

help to protect from physical damage
physical immune barrier
osmoregulation
thermoregulation
sensory information
235
Q

addition rule of inheritence

A

probability that 2 or more events will occur add them together

236
Q

calculation for multiple inheritable characteristics

A

multiply the individual probabilities for each characteristic, then multiply them together to get the probability they will all happen in one individual

237
Q

times when Mendelian patterns don’t hold up

A

incomplete dominance - mixture of the two
co-dominance - distinct representations of both
more than 2 alleles for a characteristic (ex. RBC type)
pleiotropy - gene produces multiple phenotypes (pigmentation in cats)

238
Q

epistasis

A

gene at one locus alters expression of a gene at another locus

239
Q

polygenic inheritance

A

additive effect of 2 or more genes on a phenotype

240
Q

calculating possible gametes

A

2^x

x= number of chromosomes (assuming genes are on separate chromosomes)

241
Q

DNA synthesis beginning, replication direction

RNA synthesis beginning, replication direction

A

RNA primer sequence put down at original of replication by primase
DNA built in the 5’ to 3’ direction (read 3’ to 5’)

RNA polymerase needs no primer, attaches to promoter region
RNA also built in 5’ to 3’ (read 3 to 5’)

242
Q

missense and nonsense mutations

A

missense - code for another amino acid (wrong word)

nonsense - amino acid to stop codon

243
Q

calculation frequency of an allele in a population

conditions for this calculation to work

A

number of that allele/total alleles
frequencies of each allele added = 1

no mutations, random mating, no natural selection, large population, no gene flow

Biology 201 (4 decks)

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