Biology 20 Final Review Flashcards
1
Q
What is a closed system?
A
Matter can not be exchanged, but energy is exchanged.
2
Q
Is Earth a closed system? Why?
A
We get energy from the sun and stuff but matter is not exchanged
3
Q
Dynamic Equilibrium definition
A
any system that has lots of changes occurring but the parts of the system adjust to these changes without messing up the whole system
4
Q
What are the earth’s 3 basic structural zones
A
the lithosphere (land), hydrosphere (water), and atmosphere (air)
5
Q
Whats the biosphere
A
any part of the earth that contains life, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere are all a part of the biosphere because they all contain living things
6
Q
Biotic Definition
A
living parts of the biosphere/earth
7
Q
Abiotic Definition
A
non-living parts of the biosphere/earth (including chemical and physical factors)
8
Q
example of abiotic chemical and geological factors of the biosphere
A
rocks and minerals
9
Q
example of abiotic physical factors of the biosphere
A
temperature and weather
10
Q
levels of organization from simple to more complex (smallest to largest) (10)
A
cell - tissue - organ - system - organism - population - community - ecosystem - biome - biosphere
11
Q
Population definition
A
group of the same species, at the same place, at a specific time
12
Q
Community definition
A
multiple populations in an area/habitat
13
Q
Ecosystem definition
A
a community with its biotic and abiotic factors (physical and chemical environment interacting with organisms)
14
Q
biodiversity/biological diversity definition
A
the number of species in an ecosystem, the more species- the healthier the ecosystem
15
Q
food-chain definition
A
a sequence linking organisms that feed on each other, starting with a food source (plants… producer) and continuing in order with each consumer
16
Q
what do predators do for the ecosystem
A
keeps the population of its prey from getting out of hand, stops over population of a certain species
17
Q
what do prey do for the ecosystem
A
important source of food
18
Q
what happens when a predator goes extinct by humans
A
its prey over populates and takes over the ecosystem affecting a whole bunch of other stuff and it just creates a domino effect
19
Q
definition of a producer
A
an autotroph; makes its own food
20
Q
autotroph definition
A
makes its own food
21
Q
consumer definition
A
heterotroph; must eat other things to live bc it cant make its own food
22
Q
heterotroph definition
A
eats other things bc it cant make its own food
23
Q
the health of top level consumers indicate what?
A
their health indicated whether toxins are entering the ecosystem because top level consumers rely totally on other members of the ecosystems food chain and the toxins in these organisms get passed down to the top consumer
24
Q
Whats an endangered species
A
close to extinction in all parts of the country or very large location
25
whats an extirpated species
one that no longer exists in one part of the country but can be found in other parts
26
whats a threatened species
likely to become endangered if no help is provided
27
indicator species definition
species sensitive to small changes in an ecosystem and is used to provide early warning
28
if the populations of frogs decrease what happens
frogs eat large amounts of insects so there would be a LOT more insects
29
how many ecosystems are frogs and many other amphibians a part of
2, land and water - hydrosphere and lithosphere
30
herbivore definition
animal that eats only plants
31
carnivore definition
eats meat/other animals
32
omnivore definition
eats both plants and animals
33
detritus definition
wastes from plants and animals including their dead remains
34
what do detritus food chains do
recycling matter in ecosystems through decomposers
35
what are decomposers
ORGANISM that BREAKS DOWN DETRITUS (plant and animal waste) to get nutrients for themselves but also release some nutrients back into the soil or water which plants and algae use to grow
36
Habitat defintion
area that an organism or population can survive in
37
what causes habitat loss
humans; farming, industry, buildings, concrete, roads, housing... etc.
38
biome definition
large scale ecosystem
39
why are frogs disappearing (4)
loss of habitat, air and water quality, climate change, ultraviolet radiation
40
why is the amount of UV radiation reaching the Earth's surface increasing?
damage to the ozone layer surrounding the earth
41
Ultraviolet Radiation (UV Rays) defintion
electromagnetic radiation from the sun that causes sunburns and cellular mutation
42
ozone definition
an inorganic molecule; helps screen out UV rays
43
what is a big part of the damage of the ozone
CFC's (chlorofluorocarbons) found in spray cans and refrigerators
44
what organism serves as an indicator species for the health of the planet
frogs; they are greatly effected by global warming, UV rays, pollution, climate change, air and water quality and habitat loss
45
What is photosynthesis?
when green plants use solar energy, water, and carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates (sugars) which can be used as food by other organisms
46
trophic level definition
a category of living things defined by how it gains its energy
47
what is placed in the first trophic level
producers/autotrophs, organisms that make their own food (example; from solar energy)...
48
some different types of producers
plants, algae, some bacteria
49
what is placed in the second trophic level
primary consumers; feed on producers... herbivores... rely directly on the autotrophs
50
what is placed in the third trophic level
secondary consumers; eat primary consumers... carnivore
51
animal that is a primary consumers
rabbit eats grass
52
animal that is a secondary consumer
snake eats rabbit
53
animal that is a tertiary consumer
owl eats snake
54
what is a tertiary consumer
eats secondary consumer
55
top carnivore definition
the final carnivore in a food chain, not eaten by other animals (while they are alive)
56
food web defintion
series of interlocking food chains, representation of the feeding relationships among organisms in an ecosystem... represents energy pathways
57
what are the most stable ecosystems
those with the greatest biodiversity
58
why does a greater biodiversity result in a more stable ecosystem?
the food web is so complex that reduction or removal of one species will only have a small effect on the ecosystem because there are many other species to replace that species energy
59
what moves energy from the abiotic component of an ecosystem to the biotic component
photosynthesis!!!... uses sunlight (abiotic) and moves it to the biotic component of the ecosystem (plants)
60
cellular respiration definition
cells break down glucose into carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy
61
chemosynthesis
process in which non-photosynthetic organisms convert inorganic chemicals to organic compounds without solar energy
62
chemoautotroph
an organism that can make organic compounds from inorganic chemicals without using solar energy
63
what organisms undergo cellular respiration to use the energy in their food
ALL ORGANISMS
64
Basic Chemical Reaction for Photosynthesis
CO2+H2O+energy --> C6H12O6+O2
65
Basic Chemical Reaction for Cellular Respiration
C6H12O6+O2 --> CO2+H2O+energy
66
What two ecosystems use chemosynthesis instead of photosynthesis?
Caves or Deep Oceans
67
How does chemosynthesis work?
Bacter called chemoautotrophs use CO2, H2O and an energy source (Not solar) to make nutrients.. the energy can be taken from inorganic chemicals like; hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, ferrous ions or sulfur
68
How do hot springs work?
thermal energy from the earths crust heats the underground water, and is released through vents in rock
69
How do bacteria in sulfur hot springs produce food
some bacteria use thermal energy to convert dissolved hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide into organic compounds
70
As energy travels through the trophic levels/different organisms/ecosystem at each transfer some energy is lost... why?
each time energy is transferred 90% is lost as heat or waste
71
what are the LABELS for the trophic levels
producer - primary consumer - secondary consumer (top carnivore)
72
what are the two types of food chains
grazer: plant - herbivore - carnivore
detritus: organic waste - scavengers - decomposers
73
trophic levels demonstrate what
how far an organism is from the original energy source... orignal energy=sun first trophic level =plants
74
In ALL food chains the farther up the chain you go ___ energy is available
LESS
75
The loss of energy at each trophic level limits the trophic levels in a food chain to about what number
5
76
first law of thermodynamics
energy can be changed in form, but not created or destroyed
77
second law of thermodynamics
any change in energy results in a loss of energy as heat
78
Explain why only 10% of the energy available in a plant is transferred to primary consumer
90% of the energy is needed for photosynthesis, growth, and reproduction...
79
ecological pyramid definition
illustrate the energy loss through the trophic levels
80
what is a pyramid of numbers
total number of organisms at each trophic level in an ecosystem
81
what shape do pyramids of numbers take?
depending on the producer the shape can be like an actual pyramid or if the primary consumer is very tiny and the producer is large, then there will be small amounts of trees and very large numbers of tiny insects because thousands of insects can feed off of only one tree...
82
what is a biomass pyramid
mass of dry tissue of organisms at each trophic level (based on stored energy amounts... places with more sunlight have higher biomass bc more stored energy)... mass decreases as you move up the food chain
83
what are biomass pyramids measured in
grams (g)
84
what is an energy pyramid
based on the energy produced at each trophic level... gets smaller as you go up
85
what are energy pyramids measured in
kJ, J, Calorie...
86
the higher the trophic level the ___ energy is available
LESS
87
what are pesticides
used to kill pests; however they get eaten and the toxins accumulate in food chains ... ex: DDT
88
What are organic compounds
substances that CONTAIN atoms of CARBON and HYDROGEN
89
What are inorganic compounds
substances that DO NOT contain CARBON and HYDROGEN
90
Are the chemicals that make up your body; proteins, sugars and fats, organic or inorganic
organic
91
what are amino acids used for
used to build proteins
92
what are sugars (glucose) used to do
store energy
93
what are fatty acids used for
fatty acids are combined to form fats which store energy and build cell membranes
94
why must matter be recycled
because there is no other source of matter so we need to keep using the stuff we have.... it must be recycled to maintain life on earth
95
what happens to organic molecules during digestion
complex organic molecules are broken down into simpler molecules
96
what do decomposers do to organic matter held in dead bodies and wastes
decomposers break down ORGANIC matter into small INORGANIC molecules
97
What happens to the inorganic molecules (nutrients) that are in the soil because of a decomposer breaking organic matter into those nutrients
these molecules enter the soil or water which is used by plants as nutrients to make food for themselves then an animal eats the plant and it just keeps going
98
what is the major component of the cell's cytoplasm
water
99
what are the three states water is in
vapour(gas), solid (snow,ice), liquid
100
a list of the importance of water to organisms (6)
- absorbs/releases thermal energy
- metabolic reactions take place in water
- excellent solvent (dissolves things)
- makes up 60% of the cells mass
- supplies hydrogen during photosynthesis, supplies oxygen during cellular respiration
- reactant AND product in some metabolic activities
101
what is a polar molecule
molecule that has a positive and negative end
102
is water a polar molecule
yes
103
how is water held together
water molecules are held together by COVALENT bonds that join ONE OXYGEN and TWO HYDROGEN atoms...
104
how is water a polar molecule
water = one oxygen, two hydrogen ... electrons attracted to oxygen (negative) ...hydrogens (Positive) are at the other end.. negative end repels negative ends of other water molecules but attracts the other waters positive ends
105
what pulls water molecules together
hydrogen bonds
106
what are hydrogen bonds
type of bond formed between positive end of one water molecule and the negative end of another water molecule
107
definition of the hydrological cycle (Water cycle)
the movement of water through the environment from the atmosphere to earth and back
108
summarize the hydrological cycle
river -> ocean -> evaporation -> part of clouds -> precipitation (rain/snow/hail) -> back to ground, ocean, underground, river... wherever it ends up and then gets evaporated again...
109
transpiration definition
the loss of water through plant leaves
110
how do plants/trees play a role in the water cycle
through transpiration...
111
whats surface water
lakes, ponds, rivers
112
what two sources do we get our water from
ground water, and surface water
113
percolation definition
the movement of a liquid through porous material like soil (water moving through the soil)
114
water table definition
below ground that fills with water above bedrock or clay
115
leaching definition
removal of dissolvable minerals by percolation (filtering through soil)
116
wet acid deposition
also known as acid rain... sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxides enter the atmosphere and combine with water droplets to form acids which return to the surface as rain or snow in the form of acid rain
117
dry acid deposition
sulfur and nitrous oxides may remain airborne and stay dry... they then combine with moisture on the earth surface like dew on a lawn, surface of a lake to form acids
118
what is the cause of sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxides in the atmosphere
- when fossil fuels and metal ores containing sulfur are burn = sulfur dioxide (which is a poisonous gas)
- vehicles, fossil fuel burning power plants, processing nitrogen fertilizers produces various nitrous oxides
119
what is capillary action
the upward motion of water that goes against gravity... when water carries nutrients up plants stems etc...
120
why does the ocean store a lot of INORGANIC carbon
because water can dissolve carbon dioxide
121
what cycles inorganic carbon dioxide into more complex organic substances
photosynthesis
122
carbon cycle definition
cycle in which carbon atoms move from inorganic form to an organic form and then back to an inorganic form
123
what released carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
combustion (burning things)
124
combustion definition
chemical reaction that occurs when a substance reacts very quickly with oxygen to release energy... burning
125
Most of the carbon in living organisms is returned to the atmosphere or water as _______ from _____ and _____
as carbon dioxide from wastes and decays
126
When carbon is in INORGANIC form what three places is it stored in
the atmosphere, the earth's crust, the oceans
127
What is the largest storage for carbon... why
sedimentary rocks... carbon in oceans often get turned into rocks and then carbon stays locked in rocks for millions of years until people, volcanoes or acid rain burns the rocks up
128
peat definition
slowly decomposing plant matter produced in LOW-OXYGEN environments ... like BOGS
129
Where is organic carbon held
the bodies of living things (but once they die and decay it is back to inorganic form), and organic carbon can be kept in peat in BOGS
130
What are bogs?
an ecosystem with very little oxygen... decomposition is VERY SLOW creating peat
131
how is coal made
carbon is locked away under peat and get covered in sediment and eventually the carbon can be trapped between layers of rock = carbon containing fossil fuel = coal
132
biogeochemical pathways
when matter cycles through the biosphere following its specific pathways = the cycles of matter
133
what are the three major cycles
carbon/oxygen cycle
nitrogen cycle
phosphorus cycle
134
the carbon/oxygen cycle has a lot to do with the interrelations between __________ and ___________
photosynthesis and cellular respiration
135
carbon dioxide is released during what activities
volcanoes, automobiles, combustion, uplifting and weathering
136
uplifting definition
tectonic plates move together creating volcanoes, mountains etc..
137
whats weathering
erosion; something wearing away because of wind, water, etc...
138
how have humans changed the carbo cycle
- mining and burning stored carbon = more carbon dioxide in atmosphere
- clearing away vegetation to build/farm = more carbon dioxide in inorganic reservoir (bc less photosynthesis.. more and more is being kept in the atmosphere bc the oceans can only hold so much)
139
albedo definition
the extent a surface reflects light that hits it... albedo of 0.08 means 8% of light is reflected
140
snow and ice have a high or low albedo... why
high, the white strongly reflects the light and does not absorb much energy keeping cool temps while no snow covered surfaces absorb more light and energy and reflect less light
141
nitrogen cycle definition
cycle of matter in which nitrogen atoms move from nitrogen gas in the atmosphere to inorganic form in soil, to organic forms in living things and back to inorganic forms in the soil and then once again as nitrogen gas in the atmosphere
142
nitrogen fixation/nitrification definition
atmospheric or dissolved nitrogen gets turned into nitrate ions
143
why are nitrogen atoms required in organisms
cells need nitrogen to make proteins and DNA
144
what makes up 79% of the atmopshere
nitrogen (N2)
145
what form must nitrogen be in for it to be usable to organisims
nitrate ions (NO3)
146
what are the two ways nitrogen can be converted into nitrates
- lighting
| - bacteria in soil
147
how does lighting make nitrogen into nitrates
energy from lighting causes nitrogen gas to react with oxygen in the air producing nitrates.. end up in the soil through rain or something and then move into plants through their roots
148
where is nitrogen fixing bacteria found
on the roots of legumes (such as clover, soybeans, peas and alfalfa)
149
what happens to nitrogen containing chemicals in dead organisms or their wastes when they decay
decomposers break down the nitrogen containing chemicals into ammonia (NH3)
150
what happens to ammonia produced by decomposers
bacteria convert ammonia into nitrites and then other bacteria convert the nitrites into nitrates and it is now able to be used once again
151
what is denitrification
when nitrates get turned into nitrites and then back to nitrogen gas which goes back to the atmosphere
152
what carries out denitrification
bacteria that dont need no oxygen
153
fertilizer definition
material used to restore nutrients to plants
154
what happens when nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers are carried by spring runoff to streams then lakes??
a whole bunch of algae grows = a ton of decomposers = less oxygen = less fish
155
what happens when too much nitrates is in our water (especially for babies)
in small humans nitrates end up in their stomach and something converts the nitrates to nitrites which then attach to hemoglobin in blood, reducing the ability to carry oxygen to tissues... this isn't so bad in adults bc their stomachs are more acidic and the nitrates cant even get to the stomach without being destroyed
156
phosphorous cycle
cycling of phosphorus between biotic and abiotic components of the environment; consists of a biological and geochemical cycle
157
what is phosphorus a key element in
- cell membranes
- making DNA
- bones
- molecules that help release chemical energy
158
what are the two parts to the phosphorus cycle
long term cycle; rocks (geological)
| short term cycle; living organisms (biological)
159
what are nutrients
chemical essential for living things
160
what two things are both nutrients
nitrates and phosphates
161
describe the long term/geological/rock cycle in the phosphorus cycle
phosphate in rocks -> weathering -> dissolved inorganic phosphate in soil/river ->runoff to ocean ->build up in ocean sediments -> uplifting -> phosphate in rocks....
162
describe the short term/biological/living organisms cycle of the phosphorus cycle
dissolved inorganic phosphate in soil/rivers -> enters plants -> enters animals/decomposes -> animals decompose -> dissolved inorganic phosphate in soil...
163
3 other examples of nutrients
potassium, calcium, magnesium
164
ecology definition
the study of interactions between organisms and their living and non-living environment
165
abiotic factor
a non-living factor that influences an organisms
166
biotic factor
a living factor that affects/influences an organism
167
ecotone definition
transition area between two ecosystems... great biodiversity because there are organisms from both of the ecosystems
168
ecological niche
an organisms role in an ecosystem, its place in the food web, its habitat, its breeding area, and the time of day its most active... everything it does to survive and reproduce
169
What helps reduce competition between species
organisms niche's because then they feed off of the same plant at different times of day, etc.
170
whats the problem with exotic species
they need to compete for an already existing niche, killing off either the original organism with this niche or it dies because it cant compete with the original niche holder
171
what is one of the main causes of extinction
humans introducing exotic species to new places...
172
biome definition
large area with a specific climate, that has plants and animals adapted to this climate ... each biome contains many ecosystems
173
terrestrial ecosystems
ecosystems that are found anywhere on earth thats not covered by water...
174
Alberta's terrestrial ecosystems are found within what two biomes?
taiga and grassland
175
conifers
cone-bearing trees that have needles instead of leaves
176
what weather is conifer trees (part of taiga) adapted to?
warm moist summers, and cold dry winters... needles stop water loss during the winter because of small surface area and wax covering that also protects it from frost
177
how does the shape of a conifer help it
the cone shape keeps snow from piling on top of it ... the needles do not hold snow... it doesnt get crushed by the snow basically
178
canopy definition
the upper layer of vegetation in a forest.. top of trees.. etc
179
what affects sunlight in taiga biome
the canopy stops the sunlight from reaching the forest floor... the most sunlight is hit by the top of conifers
180
because of such little sunlight in taiga biome of forest floor what grows there
shade loving plants like: shrubs, moss, ferns
181
what animals survive off of the shade loving plants of the taiga biome
deer, moose, voles
182
what types of animals like to eat conifers aka they thrive in taiga
50 species of birds ... thick strong beaks capable of cracking the cones... also squirrels can feed on the pine seeds
183
what are the predators of the taiga biome
black, grizzly bears, weasels, owls and wolverines
184
in taiga the soil is very acidic.. why? and what grows in acidic soil?
the needles from the conifers are very acidic so when they decompose it makes the soil acidicy... black spruce trees grow in acidic soil
185
permafrost definition
a layer of permanently frozen soil under the normal soil
186
muskeg definition
soil above permafrost that is swampy or boggy in the summer
187
what biome is muskeg and permafrost found in
tundra... these affect the types of organisms that will live in this biome
188
decomposition is slow in tundra/ muskeg... why?
the low temperatures limit the reproduction of soil bacteria and fungi... limits the amount of organic matter in soil
189
plants that live in the slow decomposition soil in tundra are
lichens, mosses, tall grass, small shrubs, stunted conifers
190
pools of water that collect in muskeg/tundra are suitable for what organisms
black flies and mosquitoes...
191
where are caribou found
muskeg ecosystems of taiga!!!
192
whats the soil like in grassland biome
very good decomposition its very good healthy soil... all the grass with deep roots is good for decomposition.. the warm temperatures = rapid decay and makes a rich layer of humus
193
whats humus
decaying plant and animal matter
194
abiotic limiting factors of terrestrial ecosystems (ANY AREA OF LAND)
1. soil
2. available water
3. temperature
4. sunlight
195
Soil as a limiting factor for terrestrial ecosystems
the quality and amount of soil are critical factors in determining the size and health of the plant community and the biodiversity of an ecosystem
196
Available water as a limiting factor for terrestrial ecosystems
the amount of water available in an ecosystem helps determine the size and health of populations and biodiversity of an ecosystem... (rains a lot: lots of biodiversity.. rains a lil: only plants that can survive wit small amounts of water
197
temperature as a limiting factor for terrestrial ecosystems
temperature affects both abiotic and biotic factors.. can vary significantly throughout the year... what animals survive in constant heat, constant cold... something that constantly changes... how does the soil reacts to very cold temperatures... makes it pretty shitty huh?
198
sunlight as a limiting factor for terrestrial ecosystems
the amount of sunlight determines what types of plants will grow there.. closer to the equator the amount of sunlight in a day is constant.. southern or northern places have different amounts of sunlights at different times of the year... how does this affect things?
199
Taiga biome and limiting factors
sunlight: tree canopy stops sunlight from hitting the floor year round; making shrubs moss ferns, etc which brings deer and moose and birds in the conifers
temperature; warm moist summers, cold dry winters = like conifers.. animals must be able to adapt in the cold and summer like bears and deer
available water: less precipitation, most of the precipitation is snow
soil; soil is acidic bc of the needles of conifers, . water in the soil ok but acidic soil
200
Animals in taiga
50 species of birds bc of conifers.. primary consumers: moose, voles, deer... secondary; black/grizzly bears, weasels, owls, wolverine
201
Grassland biome and limiting factors
sunlight; so much sunlight bc no trees all grass = good soil/ decomp.. no trees bc too dry.. sun all year round
temperature: very warm, no shade, very dry = no trees, warm temp = good decomp
available water; doesnt get much rain bc the grass doesnt really need it = no trees or green plants
soil; GREAT soil.. warm temp, sunlight, grass = good decomposition - amazing soil
202
animals in grassland biome
lots of ground animals: snakes, mice, weasels
big grazers: bison, deer,
some randoms: rabbits, yellow-bellied sapsuckers, grasshoppers
LOTS of herbivores
predatory birds bc no nuts/seeds or berries:. hawk
203
Limiting factors in tundra/muskeg biome
sunlight; not very much sunlight... short growing season... the days are often very short
temperature; very cold, permafrost, dry
available water; low precipitation
soil; permafrost = VERY slow decomp... always cold...
All of this = not a lot of plants or trees in general... lowest energy flow
204
All the biomes and their energy flows
energy flow 2 (low): Tundra (frozen desert)
energy flow 7 (good): grassland
energy flow 10 (good): taiga (lots of snow.. mixed season)
energy flow 16 (great): deciduous (lil bit of everythang)
205
Limiting factors in Deciduous biome
sunlight; spring-sun reaches forest floow where the plants at the bottome grow - then summer the trees grow and the plants at the bottom are already fully grown so their is sunlight available for canopy and the understory = good sunlight - lots of photosynthesis goin on from the trees = rapid growth throughout the biome
temperature; high temp = good decomp, rich topsoil good for all the plants deciduous trees need lots of energy from temp and sun and decomp etc.
available water; high precipitation, lots of rain = rich topsoil, good for plants, lots of humus,
soil; lots of decomp from leaves, high temp, high precipitation, sunlight, lots of detritus, litter, bacteria ... all these factors make very good soil for all of the plants that need it
deciduous biome has the highest energy flow
206
The basic flaws of each biome
tundra: cold, dry, permafrost, less decomp, less sunlight
grassland: too dry for anything but grass lol
taiga: acidic soil, less light, less precipitation
deciduous: less light in summer for forest floor
207
Animals in tundra biome
black bear; caribou (muskeg = great for caribou), black flies and mosquitoes bc of the pools of water
208
Animals in Deciduous biome
black bear (trees); weasels, moose (litter/plants), deer (litter/plants), woodpecker (trees). thick layer of leaf litter = lots of insects, = lots of insect eating birds and mammals... all the vegetation = moose n deer, large canopy = bird and climbing mammals WOODPECKER
209
understory definition
below the canopy layer, usually shrubs and small trees
210
litter definition
upper layer of soil composed of mainly partially decomposed leaves or grass
211
what are the most common trees in deciduous biome
aspen, balsam poplar, and birch
212
abiotic limiting factors in aquatic ecosystems
1. chemical environment
2. sunlight
3. temperature
213
when talking about limiting factors of an aquatic ecosystem what is the chemical environment factor?
the type of water (fresh or salt), the amount of oxygen dissolved in the water, and any other dissolved substances in the water (minerals or pollutants, etc)
214
when talking about limiting factors of an aquatic ecosystem what is sunlight do?
may vary throughout the year, the amount of sunlight can also depend on how deep a body of water is.. ecosystems near the top of the surface get more sunlight = higher temps and more photosynthesis = more organisms near the top
215
when talking about limiting factors in aquatic ecosystems what does temperature do?
temperature may vary throughout the year, and the temperature can also depend on how deep the water is and how much sunlight can reach and warm it up..
216
what is a fourth abiotic factor in the aquatic ecosystem
water pressure
217
littoral zone definition
area from the shore of the lake or pond to the point where no more plants grow in the lake bottom
218
limnetic zone definition
the area of lake or pond in which there is open water and sufficient light for photosynthesis to occur
219
profundal zone definition
the region of a lake beneath the limnetic zone, in which there is insufficient light for photosynthesis to occur
220
what part of the lake is most productive
littoral, most plants and algae
221
what organisms are found in the limnetic zone
PLANKTON both autotrophic and heterotrophic ... food for fish, tadpoles and birds
222
what is the (Mostly) only source of nutrients in the profundal zone of lakes
the rain of dead plants and animals that fall from the limnetic zone... this detritus (animal/plant matter including dead corpse) is slowly broken down by bacteria or consumed by bottom dwelling weirdo fish called detritus feeders
223
what problems occur with breaking down detritus that falls to the profundal zone
the bacteria uses oxygen to break it down, lowering the amount of oxygen in the water.. bc theres no sunlight or plants to replace this used up oxygen.. there is now VERY low levels of oxygen very few fish can survive in these environments.. one example that can is carp
224
topsoil definition
the soil layer beneath the litter, composed of small particles of rock mixed with humus (decaying plant and animal matter)
225
subsoil definition
the soil layer beneath the topsoil, usually containing more rock particles and less organic matter than top soil
226
bedrock definition
the layer beneath the soil, composed of rock or clay
227
layers of soil in order
1. litter
2. topsoil
3. subsoil
4. bedrock
228
what can affect the pH of the soil
the rock in which the soil comes from and the types of plants that grow in it and the acidity of rain, snow and groundwater that enters the soil
229
groundwater definition
water in the soil or rock below the Earth's surface
230
pure water becomes less dense below ______ degrees... thats why _____ floats
4 degrees... thats why ice floats
231
the lowest layer of a lake often has a temperature of what?
4 degrees... most dense
232
how lake temperatures work in the winter n how they affect the fishies
layer of ice, then near the surface is slightly above 0 degrees, at the bottom the water is 4 degrees.. if the ice gets too thick light wont shine through and levels of oxygen dissolved will drop and the organisms will die
233
how lakes work in the spring
ice melts, oxygen gets through, wind stirs the water = increases SA = amount of dissolved oxygen.. cold surface water warms reaching 4 degrees oxygen sinks .. basically the oxygen is mixed throughout the lake called spring turnover
234
how lakes work in the summer (oxygen, density, temp, organisms)
water is warmer than 4 degrees and the oxygen stops sinking :(.. layers of water are set up, most dense at the bottom, least at the top.the layers don't mix so theres little movement of oxygen.. organisms in the low level of lake (hypolimnion) must rely on oxygen reserved from spring turnover .. at the top level of lake (epilimnion) the warmer it is the less oxygen can be held so if it gets really hot they can lose their oxygen and those organisms can die
235
how lakes work in the fall
the lake cools and once the temp reaches 4 degrees oxygen falls down again mixing throughout the lake the fall turnover renews oxygen levels
236
epilimnon definition
the upper level of a lake which warms up in summer
237
hypolimnion definition
the lower level of a lake which remains at a low temperature year round
238
thermocline definition
the zone between the epilimnion and hypolimnion, in which temperatures change rapidly
239
the solubility (ability to dissolve) of _____ in water INCREASES as temperatures DECREASE
OXYGEN
240
biotic potential
the maximum number of offspring that a species could produce with unlimited resources
241
the 4 factors that regulate biotic potential
birth potential: max # of offspring per birth
capacity for survival: # of offspring that reach adulthood
breeding frequency: # of times a species reproduces each year
length of reproductive life: age of sexual maturity and # of years the individual can reproduce
242
biotic limiting factors
1. amount of food
2. predators
3. disease or parasite
4. competition
243
amount of food as a limiting factor
has an organisms food supply just gone extinct?!?! is there enough food for everyone in the species?!?!
244
predators as a limiting factor
lots = killing all the prey .. few = overpopulation of prey
245
disease or parasite as a limiting factor
lots of disease... sick and die, very little = healthy living organisms
246
competition as a limiting factor
can an organism compete against another for its resources... one or the other will die.. wins = food/habitat/resource... loses = death
247
carrying capacity
the maximum number of individuals of a species that can be supported by an ecosystem (determined by availability of resources)
248
when is stability achieved in an ecosystem
when its in equilibrium
249
deforestation
humans cutting/burning down trees
250
what are the two kinds of lakes
oligotrophic and eutrophic
251
oligotrophic lakes
deep and cold
low nutrient levels
only a few kinds of organisms
very clear water
252
eutrophic lakes
```
shallow and warmer
good supply of nutrients
lots of biodiversity
murky, cloudy water.. bc of decomp and producers etc
many photosynthetic organisms
```
253
eutrophication
oligotrophic lakes slowly fill in because of erosion or drought, minerals falling to the bottom of the lake the lake fills in and then becomes eutrophic and then eventually dry land
254
as the lake gets shallower oxygen levels ___ and _____ increases
decrease and temperature increases
255
stromatolite
a banded limestone structure containing fossilized bacteria
256
artificial ecosystem
an ecosystem that is planned or maintained by humans... a park, a zoo, etc.
257
natural ecosystem
ecosystem in which the interactions are not changed purposely by humans
258
two types of biodiversity
species diversity and genetic diversity
259
species diversity
describes the number of different species
260
genetic diversity
the amount of variation in inherited traits between individuals of the SAME SPECIES
261
taxonomy definition
the science of classifying organisms ... done by taxonimists
262
binomial nomenclature
a method of naming organisms by using two names - genus and species (genus, species is the order)
263
genus definition
the first part of a binomial name; a genus includes several species ALWAYS FIRST LETTER CAPITALIZED AND IT CAN BE WRITTEN ALONE... species always needs its genus and is never capitalized
264
species definition
a group of organisms that look alike and can breed with each other under NATURAL circumstances to produce FERTILE offspring
265
binomial nomenclature uses what language for the names
latin
266
taxa definition
categories used to classify organisms
267
8 taxa of classification system
```
Domain Most inclusive to least inclusive
Kingdom aka general to more specific
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
```
268
How to remember 8 taxa of the classification system
Dumb Kid Plays Chess On Freeway Gets Slaughtered
269
Phylogeny
the history of the evolution of organisms.. relationships shown in a phylogenetic tree
270
Protista Definition
a kingdom originally meant for only unicellular organisms ... now multicellular algae is included in protista
271
Monera definition
in the 5 kingdom system its a kingdom that includes organisms that dont have a true nucleus
272
archaebacteria
in the six kingdom system; its a kingdom that has prokaryotic microorganisms , heterotrophs, live in salt lakes, hot springs and animal guts .. it has a cell wall does not contain peptidoglycan
273
prokaryote
A prokaryote is a single-celled organism that lacks a membrane-bound nucleus, mitochondria, or any other membrane-bound organelles.
274
eubacteria
in a six kingdom system; its a kingdom consisting of prokaryotic microorganisms that contain a peptidoglycan cell wall
275
A six kingdom system of classification
1. Eubacteria
2. Archaebacteria
3. Protista
4. Fungi
5. Plantae
6. Animalia
276
whats a phylogenetic tree
shows the relationships in the history of the evolution of species.. the tree starts from the most ancestral form and includes branchings that lead to all of its descendants
277
dichotomous key definition
a two-part key used to identify living things.. Di=2
278
how does a dichotomous key work
a series of choices must be made and each choice leads to a new branch of the key.. if the choices are made accurately the end result is the name of the organism being identified
279
what is taxonomy used for
its used by biologists to identify organisms and recognize natural groupings of living things
280
paleontology definition
the study of fossils
281
direct evident of evolution comes from
```
fossils
radiometric dating (determining the age of a rock/fossil)
```
282
radiometric dating definition
a technique used to determine the age of a rock or fossil
283
biogeography definition
the study of the geographic distribution of life on Earth (how animals/organisms are distributed throughout the earth's land..)
284
endemic definition
a term used to describe a species that is found in one location only (evolved in isolation)
285
what do fossils show about the difference between animals today and previously in time
fossils show that species living today are different from those living in the past, they reveal a progression of different species on earth over time from simple forms into more and more complex forms
286
Indirect evidence of evolution examples
- comparative anatomy (studying the anatomy of different species or fossils with current species)
- homologous/analogous features
- embryology
287
patterns found in fossils
1. different species lived on earth in the past
2. organisms in the past were much simpler and farther in the future you get the more complex the organism get
3. living species and their closely matching fossils are usually located in the same area
288
homologous features definition
features with similar structures but different functions
289
analogous features definition
look the same and kinda do the same thing but dont come from the same evolutionary origin (aka a bird wing and an insect wing)
290
embryology definition
the study of organisms in their early stages of development.. closely related organisms go through similar stages in their development
291
vestigial features definition
structures with no useful function (belief is they were once useful to an ancient ancestor)
292
DNA definition
the molecule that makes up genetic material
293
Gene definition
a segment of DNA that performs a specific function; such as coding for a particular protein
294
The four bases in DNA
adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), guanine (G)
295
artificial selection definition
the process of humans selecting a breeding individuals with the desired traits
296
spontaneous generation definition
the belief that living things arose from non-living matter..
297
inheritance of acquired characteristics definition
traits acquired in life time could be passed on to its offspring
298
Lamarck's Theory
He believed that VERY simple species were produced through spontaneous generation and then gradually became more complex. He believed that organisms had a desire to become better so they'd adapt for these desires or needs to survive (aka stretching out their neck to reach high food, growing a thumb to do stuff idk) he also believed in the use and disuse of things so if you used your right arm every day itd get stronger but if you never used your left one it'd fall off and your children would be born without left arms because theyre basically meaningless
299
How does fossilization occur
-organic components of the organism are replaced by minerals
-impressions left by organisms are preserved by the solidification of mud
-organisms can sometimes be caught in amber
-can be found frozen in ice
acidic-bogs = slow decomp.. = never decompose
300
convergent evolution
development of similar forms from unrelated species due to adaptation to similar environment (bird wing and butterfly wing).. analogous structures = not related but similar forms!
301
inherited traits
determined by DNA, inherited by parent... hair, eye and skin colour
302
acquired traits
developed over lifetime; basketball skills, music ability
303
How does a change in DNA occur
through mutation, natural selection/variation
304
theory of use and disuse
lamarck says that each body part possesses a will which allows it to change in order to better fit its environment (short necked giraffe stretches for food, slowly making its neck longer) if a body part is not used it will begin to disappear (animal in the dark losing eyesight)
305
Darwin's Theory of Evolution (5)
1. overproduction
2. variation
3. competition
4. survival of the fittest
5. speciation (passing on successful traits)
He believed in natural selection
306
overproduction
the number of offspring produced by a species is greater than the number that can survive
307
variation
differences found in the individual organisms of the same species.. no two individuals are exactly alike.. differences are caused by mutation and sexual reproduction
308
natural selection
the best win - the organisms in a species with the best traits to survive ... survive.. aka a blind cat would probably get killed compared to a not blind cat or a speedy cat would win over a super slow cat
309
what two factors cause variation between individuals
mutations and sexual reproduction
310
competition
because there are more organisms than resources they need to compete for these resources; nature picks which organisms survive
311
survival of the fittest
the most fit (for the environment) survive...
312
speciation
the surviving individuals reproduce with other survivors and pass on their good traits... over a bunch of generations new species arise by the accumulation of inherited traits that constantly change
when a type is produced that significantly different from the original = new species
313
compare darwin and lamarck
darwin: organisms may vary regardless of the environment
lamarck: individuals change to suit their environment
darwin: then the environment determines whether their variation is good (survives) or not (cant compete)
lamarck: change is based on the need to be able to compete or want to change
314
mutation definition
a change in the DNA sequence of a chromosome (can be caused by environment -chemicals or radiation- or when cells fuck up)
315
neutral mutation
a mutation that has no effect on the organism
316
fitness definition
an organisms reproductive success
317
harmful mutation definition
a mutation that reduces an organisms fitness
318
beneficial mutation definition
a mutation that enhances an organisms fitness
319
why is there very little variation and evolution in asexual organisms like bacteria
bc they all clones of their parents so they all the same unless their is a beneficial mutation nothin gunna change
320
gene pool definition
all the genes in a certain population
321
speciation definiton
the fomration of a new species
322
allopatric speciation definition
when two groups of organisms of the same species get separated somehow and end up in different environments and have to adapt to different things and their positive variations are different over time they become two different species because of the way they've adapted
323
theory of gradualism
the idea that speciation takes place slowly
324
theory of punctuated equilibrium
the idea that species evolve rapidly, followed by a period of little or no change
325
divergent evolution
evolution into many different species.. homologous structures = related but different forms!!
326
branching evolution
one or more species branch off a parent species which continues to exist
327
biochemistry in evolution
The discoveries of RNA and of molecular fossils closely related to nucleic acids suggest that nucleic acids (and specifically, RNA) were crucial to Earth's first life. These observations support the RNA world hypothesis, that early life used RNA for basic cellular processes (instead of the mix of proteins, RNA, and DNA used by modern organisms
328
what is ATP
energy in a form the cell can use (adenosine triphosphate)
329
ATP is made from the joining of ______ with another _____ molecule.. it forms the high energy bond
Adenosine Di-Phosphate (ADP) + Phosphate molecule (P) = Adenosine Tri-Phosphate (ATP) -- ADP+P = ATP
330
What is ATP used for?
motion, transport ions/molecules,building molecules, everything in ur cells and body!!
331
stored energy = ____ energy
potential
332
electrons are ______ charged
negatively
333
protons are _____ charged
positively
334
what is photosynthesis
the process that converts energy from the sun into chemical energy that is used by living cells
335
photon definition
a packet of light
short wavelength: high energy
long wavelength: low energy
336
what is light
its a form of the electromagnetic radiation that travels as waves, one wavelength=one photon.. light is the visible portion our eyes perceive photons of different wavelengths as different colours
337
what is the balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis
6CO₂ + 6H₂O -> C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
338
Photosynthesis only occurs in ______ because they contain a special pigment called _____
plants, algae, some protists, and cyanobacteria because they all have chlorophyll which is necessary to carry out photosynthesis
339
chlorophyll definition
the light absorbing green-coloured pigment that begins the process of photosynthesis
340
where is chlorophyll located
in the chloroplast
341
whats all inside the chloroplast
thylakoids and stroma
342
whats the thylakoid in the chloroplast
they're little disk things ...
343
where is the site of light dependant reaction in photosynthesis
thylakoid of chloroplast
344
granum
one stack of thylakoids
345
grana
many stacks of thylakoids
346
whats stroma in the chloroplast
the gel surrounding the thylakoids
347
whats the site of light independent reaction/calvin cycle during photosynthesis
the stroma in the chloroplast
348
white light is composed of what colours
all colours of the rainbow
349
chlorophyll a absorbs
blue green
350
chlorophyll b absorbs
yellow - green
351
pigment carotenoids absorb
orange
352
pigment xanthophyll absorbs
yellow
353
why do leaves in the fall change
in the summer with the warm temperature there are high amounts of chlorophyll which reflect green light, but in the fall the temperature cools and there is less chlorophyll allowing the other pigments to reflect orange/yellow/red light instead of being overpowered by green chlorophyll
354
what are chlorophyll a & b's job in photosynthesis
chlorophyll a is the only pigment that can transfer the energy from sunlight to the reactions for photosynthesis , chlorophyll b acts as an extra pigment picking up the photons that chlorophyll a forgot, or absorbed rlly shittily
355
what is the primary light absorbing pigment in all photosynthetic organisms?
chlorophyll
356
chloroplast definition
a membrane-bound organelle in green plant algae cells that carries out photosynthesis
357
stroma definition
the protein rich semiliquid material in the inside of a chloroplast
358
within the stroma a system of membrane-bound sacs called ______ stack on top of one another to form columns called ____
thylakoids.... called:grana
359
lamellae definition
grana (stacks of thylakoids) are connected by lamellae (unstacked thylakoids)
360
thylakoid membrane definition
the photosynthetic membrane within a chloroplast that contains light-gathering pigments and ETC
361
thylakoid lumen definition
the fluid filled spaces inside a thylakoid
362
what are the two steps in photosynthesis
light dependant reaction and then light independant reaction
363
briefly describe the light dependant reaction going on in the thylakoid membrane
water, and light energy are absorbed and oxygen is produced, ATP and NADPH(carrying electrons) then go to the light independant reaction
364
briefly describe the light independent reaction going on in the stroma
carbon dioxide is absorbed and the ATP, NADPH is taken and glucose is produced
365
describe a chloroplast
they have an outer membrane and an inner membrane. in between the membranes contains gel( stroma) which is surrounding thylakoids (bunch of disks stacked up) .. the membranes contain chlorophyll molecules and ETC
366
ATP definition
a molecule containing three high energy phosphate bonds that acts as the primary energy transferring molecule in living organisms
367
ADP definition
a molecule containing two high energy phosphate bonds ... (ADP+P=ATP.. ATP-P=ADP)
368
NADP⁺
a compound that accepts one hydrogen atom and two electrons forming NADPH .. its an electron acceptor (PHOTOSYNTHESIS)
369
NADPH
A compound that donates one hydrogen atom and two electrons to another molecule to reform NADP⁺; its an electron donor (pHOTOSYNTHESIS)
370
each molecule of glucose is synthesized from __ molecules of carbon dioxide and __ molecules of water
6&6
371
energy is _____ when ADP+P=ATP and ATP-P=ATP ______ energy
energy is stored when ATP is formed and this same energy is released when the ATP is broken back into an ADP and P
372
carbon fixation definition
changing CO₂ into organic molecules
373
light dependant reactions definition
(THYLAKOID) the first set of reactions of photosynthesis in which light energy excites electrons in chlorophyll molecules, powerS chemiosmotic ATP synthesis and results in the reductions of NADP⁺ to NADPH
374
light independent reactions definition
(STROMA) the second set of reactions in photosynthesis (the calvin cycle); these reactions do not require solar energy
375
calvin cycle defintiion
(STOMRA)a cyclic set of reactions occurring in the stroma of chloroplasts that fixes the carbon of CO₂ into carbohydrate molecules and recycles coenzymes
376
Name three energy containing molecles that are made during photosynthesis
ATP, NADPH, Glucose
377
Where do the light-dependant reactions of photosynthesis take place?
Thylakoids of chloroplast
378
Where does carbon fixation/light independent reaction take place?
stroma of chloroplast
379
photosystem definition
a cluster of photosynthetic pigments embedded in a thylakoid membrane of a chloroplast that absorbs light energy (photosystem I&II)
380
electron transport chain definition
(ETC) a series of progressively stronger electron acceptors, each time an electron is transferred, energy is released
381
photolysis defintion
a chemical reaction in which a compound is broken down by light ; in photosynthesis , water molecules are split by photolysis
382
Explain the ETC
In thylakoid; A photon hits chlorophyll, an e⁻ in PSII absorbs the photon making it excited, the e⁻ goes through the ETC (by a series of redox reaction)to lose all its energy, this energy is used to pump H⁺ into thylakoid from stroma .. when e⁻ has gone through the ETC and has no energy it gets reenergized at PSI and here it will bond with an H⁺ and NADP⁺ and leaves the thylakoid as NADPH
383
What is the role of electron donors/acceptors in the ETC
-donors (NADPH) lose electrons, acceptors (NADP⁺) gain electrons.. when a molecule gains electrons (reduced), it releases energy
-> NADP⁺ ---release--> NADPH
NADPH then donates electrons to other molecules
384
What happens to the electrons released during photolysis?
when one water molecule splits two electrons are removed , energy from the sun excites the e⁻ in PSII. The energy is slowly released when passed down the ETC
385
What is the role of oxidations and reductions in the ETC
they release energy in small amounts
386
NADPH molecules are used to do what
to transfer high energy electrons to the calvin cycle/light independent reaction
387
When are hydrogen ions released into the thylakoid lumen
When light breaks water (photolysis)the H⁺ goes into the lumen, electrons enter PS11 and we breath in the Oxygen, when the electrons go through to ETC the electron's energy is used to pump more hydrogen ions into the lumen, a whole bunch of H accumulates into the lumen
388
Where are photosystems I & II located
thylakoid membrane
389
What does the calvin cycle use to do what
it uses NADPH and ATP to reduce CO₂ -> G3P which is used to make glucose and other carbohydrates
390
What happens when H⁺ begins to pile up in the thylakoid lumen
when theirs too many H⁺ in the lumen, H⁺ move from the lumen to the stroma through protein channels called ATP synthase complexes - the H⁺ goes through and they release energy; the ATP synthase complex uses the released energy to combine ADP and P making ATP (this is called chemiosmosis) -- this all takes place in the thylakoid membrane
391
Name the final product of the calvin cycle, what happens to this compound
G3P- it is used to make glucose
392
chemiosmosis definition
a process for synthesizing ATP using the energy of an electrochemical gradient (H⁺ gathering in the lumen [photosynthesis] or intermembrane space [cell resp.]) and ATP synthase complex
393
ATP synthase complex definition
a specialized protein complex embedded in the thylakoid membrane that allows H⁺ ions to escape the lumen resulting in energy to create ATP
394
OIL RIG
Oxidizing is losing [an electron]
| Reduction is gaining [an electron]
395
Oxidation definition
a reaction in which an atom or molecule loses electrons
396
reduction definition
a reaction in which an atom or molecule gains an electron
397
Why is the production of NADPH important IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS
used to transfer high energy electrons to the calvin cycle
398
How are the electrons passed onto the ETC replaced
replaced by photolysis of water.. H2O Is broken by light and 2 electrons are removed, 2 hydrogens go to the lumen and O we breath in
399
What are all the products of the light dependant reaction
Oxygen, ATP and NADPH
400
Where do electrons come from in photosynthesis
when photolysis occurs in photosynthesis (Light splitting one water molecule) 2 electrons are removed
401
How does getting electrons through photolysis work?
the light splits H2O up into 2H⁺ and one Oxygen, when water is split energy is released resulting in 2 electrons
402
Explain how ATP is made
Photolysis-puts H⁺ into thylakoid lumen, when electrons go through ETC more H⁺ is pushed into the thylakoid lumen,the H⁺ piles up in the lumen and they want to leave so they go through the ATP synthase complex and when they go through it energy is released and the ATP synthase complex uses this released energy to join ADP and P to make ATP
403
Explain how NADPH is made
after electrons go through ETC and lost their energy they enter PSI and absorb more photons , H⁺ are going through the ATP synthase complex and NADP⁺ picks up the energy charged electron in PSI and H⁺ ion leaving the ATP synthase complex and forms NADPH
404
What reactants are needed for the calvin cycle
ATP, NADPH, CO2 ----> G3P-> carbohydrate (glucose)
405
How do the reactants ATP, NADPH, CO2 needed for calvin cycle contribute to the formation of glucose
Glucose is C6H12O6, So NADPH gives it the Hydrogens, CO2 gives it the carbon and oxygen... ATP is there for energy etc..
406
What factors affect the rate of photosynthesis
carbon dioxide levels, light intensity, the wavelength or "color" of light the plant is absorbing
407
How does light intensity affect photosynthesis
the more light available for the plant, the more photosynthesis will occur, however there is a point where there can be too much light and the rate of photosynthesis will go down
408
Best colours of light for photosynthesis in order
1. blue
2. red
worst is yellow
409
cellular respiration _________ energy
releases
410
balanced formula for cellular respiration
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ -> 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + chemical energy
411
What is cellular respiration
process by which cells break down glucose into carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy
412
the two types of cellular respiration
aerobic (OXYGEN)
| anaerobic (NO OXYGEN)
413
NADH definition
electron carrier, donates electrons in CELLULAR RESPIRATION
414
NAD⁺ definition
an electron carrier, accepts electrons in CELLULAR RESPIRATION
415
FADH₂ definition
an electron carrier, donates electrons in CELLULAR RESPIRATION
416
FAD⁺ definition
an electron carrier, accepts electrons in CELLULAR RESPIRATION
417
What are FAD⁺,FADH₂,NAD⁺,NADH roles in cellular respiration
transfer electrons through oxidation-reduction reactions (OIL RIG)
418
How do the oxidation and reduction reactions in electron transfer help form ATP?
Energy released from the oxidation-reduction reactions is used to attach a free phosphate to ADP to make ATP
419
active transport defintiion
the movement of substances through a membrane against a concentration gradient using membrane bound carrier proteins and energy from ATP
420
sodium-potassium pump definition
an active transport mechanism that pumps sodium and potassium ions into and out of a cell
421
what is active transport used for in cellular respiration
active transport can be used to move substances either into or out of the cell
422
give specific examples of ATP use in the body
- used to expand and contract muscles
- changes shapes of molecules which changes its functions
- powers active transport of molecules across a membrane
423
One glucose molecule has 100 times more stored energy than one ATP molecule, explain why cells can't use glucose.. and how they get the energy from glucose
the glucose energy cannot be directly used by the cell,it is too much for the cells to handle and must be broken up into smaller portions to be used .. in cellular respiration some of the energy in glucose is converted into ATP
424
the energy released by cellular respiration is used to do what
used to make ATP
425
when glucose, carbohydrates, other food molecules are converted to ATP how much is actually converted into usable ATP, and how much is released as heat
about 36% is turned into ATP while 64% is released as heat
426
What organisms use the 64% heat "waste" released when glucose is turned into ATP
mammals and birds, warm blooded animals use it to heat themselves.
427
aerobic cellular respiration definition
the set of reactions that takes place in the cell in the presence of oxygen and releases energy stored in glucose
428
what are the end products of aerobic cellular respiration
carbon dioxide gas, water, and 36 ATP molecules
429
What are the four stages of aerobic cellular respiration
1. glycolysis
2. pyruvate oxidation
3. the Krebs cycle
4. the ETC and chemiosmosis
430
The equation summarizing aerobic cellular respiration
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ + 36ADP + 36P -> 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + 36ATP
431
anaerboic cellular respiration definition
the set of reactions that takes place in the cell in the ABSENCE OF OXYGEN and releases energy stored in glucose
432
two types of anaerobic cellular respiration
1. glycolysis
| 2. fermentation
433
where do both types of anaerobic cellular respiration take place
in the cytoplasm of the cell
434
Aerobic respiration takes place in the _____ of oxygen and produces _____ ATP per glucose molecule
takes place in the presence of oxygen and produces 36 ATP per glucose molecule
435
Anaerobic respiration takes place in the _____ of oxygen and produces _____ ATP per glucose molecule
takes place in the absence of oxygen and produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule
436
glycolysis definition
a process for harnessing energy in which a glucose molecule is broken into two pyruvate molecules in the cytoplasm of the cell
437
where does glycolyisis take place
in the cytoplasm
438
glycolysis splits a _ carbon glucose molecule into two _ carbon ______ molecules
splits a 6 carbon glucose molecule into two 3 carbon pyruvate molecules
439
simply explain glycolyisis
2 ATP are split into 2P&2ADP; releasing energy. At the same time 2 NAD⁺ ions take in H⁺ to form two NADH molecules.. releasing H⁺ into the cytoplasm.. enough energy is released to join 4 ADP+4P to make 4 ATP.. when glycolysis is done the cell has consumed a single glucose molecule and produced 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate molecules
440
reactants of glycolysis
glucose, 2NAD⁺, 2ATP, 4ADP
441
products of glycolysis
2 pyruvate, 2 NADH, 2 ATP
442
Equation for glycolysis
glucose + 2 ATP + 2 NAD⁺ + 4 ADP + 4 P-> 2 pyruvate + 2 ADP + 2 P + 2 NADH + 4 ATP
443
After glycolysis only a small portion of the energy of glucose has been converted to ATP .. in what form is the rest of the usable energy found at this stage of the process
the remaining energy is currently in the 2 pyruvate molecules and NADH moelcules
444
Where do the last 3 stages of aerobic cellular respiration take place (the first one being glycolysis in the cytoplasm)
pyruvate oxidation, the krebs cycle, and the etc all take place in the mitochondria
445
mitochondria definition
a eukaryotic (has nucleus) cell organelle in which aerobic cellular respiration occurs - scattered throughout a cyctoplasm - produce large quantities of ATP
446
mitochondrial matrix definition
the fluid that fills the interior space of the mitochondrion
447
intermembrane space definition
the fluid - filled space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes
448
214 of ur textbook look at the pictures n memorize em
do it
449
pyruvate oxidation connects what
connects glycolysis in the cytoplasm with the krebs cycle in the mitochondrial matrix
450
stage 2; pyruvate oxidation starts when..
the 2 pyruvate molecules that were made from a single glucose molecule are transported through the two mitochondrial membranes into the matrix .. once there, three things happen
451
what 3 things happen when the 2 pyruvate molecules enter the mitochondrial matrix
1. CO2 is removed from each pyruvate and released as waste
2. the remaining 2 Carbon portions are oxidized by NAD+ and each NAD+ gains 2 H+ (2 pro, 2 electrons) from the pyruvate molecule and the remaining 2-carbon compound becomes acetic acid
3. Acetyl CoA attach's to the acetic acid forming acetyl - CoA.. this thing goes to the krebs cycle
452
Summarize glycolysis (anaerobic and aerobic) (happens in the cytoplasm)
starts with glucose(C6H12O6), 2 ATP are used, 2 NAD+ each take 2H (C6H8O6) and 2 electrons = 2NADH, 4 ADP+4P=4ATP..the glucose split into 2 C3H4O3 (pyruvate).. one glucose has now been made into 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate and 2 ATP.. the two ATP made here are added to the total count at the end
453
Chemical equation of a pyruvate molecule
C3H4O3
454
Summarize pyruvate oxidation (aerobic) (mitochondrial matrix)
starts with 2 pyruvate that have come from the cytoplasm to the matrix, a CO2 is removed from each pyruvate and released as waste.. NAD+ takes 2 H and electrons from pyruvate this turns the remaining two carbons into an acetyl group.. turning pyruvate into an acetic acid ..Hydrogens go into NAD+.. CoA attaches to the acetic acid = 2 Acetyl CoA.. Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs Cycle, the 2 NADH produced enter stage 4 (ETC)
455
Krebs Cycle definition
a cyclic series of reactions that transfers energy from organic molecules to ATP, NADH, and FADH2, and removes carbon atoms as CO2
456
Since two molecules of acetyl CoA are formed from one molecule of glucose, the Krebs cycle occurs ______ for each molecule of glucose processed
TWICE
457
As acetyl CoA enters the cycle the CoA is released so where does it go
it gets used all over again for the next pyruvate
458
during one complete cycle of the Krebs cycle a total of __ NAD+, and __ FAD are reduced to form __ NADHs and __ FADH2
a total of 3 NAD+ and one FAD are reduced to form 3 NADHs and one FADH2
459
During one complete cycle how many ATPès are made
One, but because 1 glucose = 2 krebs cycles that in total would be 2 ATP formed per 1 glucose molecule processed
460
During one complete cycle of the krebs cycle two CO2 are produced, what happens to them
they're released as waste
461
By the end of the krebs cycle all of the Carbon in glucose has been tunred into
Carbon dioxide and released as waste
462
What are the products of one cycle through the krebs cycle (so double this)
2 Carbon dioxide thats released as waste, 3 NADH that go on to the etc, and one FADH2 that also moves on to the etc also 1 ATP
463
how does the ETC (stage4) work?
electrons (carried in by FADH2 AND NADH (nadh is stronger of the two..) go through the ETC, slowly releasing energy, this energy being released forced H+ from the matrix across the inner membrane to the intermembrane space (where they all pile up), the electron is now low in energy at the end of the ETC, oxygen takes away the electron from the final carrier and forms with 2 hydrogens from the matrix to make water. making oxygen the FINAL ELECTRON ACCEPTOR IN THE ETC
464
how does chemiosmosis and oxidative ATP synthase work
the H+ that has piled up in the intermembrane space during the ETC , they want out and are forced out through ATP synthase complex (chemiosmosis).. when it goes through the ATP synthase complex the energy released forced ADP and P to make ATP.. once the ATP is formed they are transported through both membranes and into the cytoplasm
465
how many ATP is made per NADH and FADH2 that brought electrons
the amount of electrons brought in by one NADH can make 3 ATP and the amount of electrons brought in by one FADH can make 2 ATP
466
oxidative ATP synthesis definition
the production of ATP from a series of oxidation reactions
467
Total ATP made in cellular respiration from one glucose?
36
468
alcohol fermentation definition
a form of fermentation occurring in yeast in which NADH passes its hydrogen atoms to acetaldehyde, generating carbon dioxide, ethanol and NAD+
469
lactic acid fermentation definition
a form of fermentation occurring in animal cells which NADH transfers its hydrogen atoms to pyruvate, regenerating NAD+ and lactic acid
470
alcohol fermentation creates what from glucose
ethanol and carbon dioxide which are released as waste products
471
when is lactic acid fermentation a thing
during exercise.. additional ATP are produced from lactic acid fermentation when u using all ur energy to workout thats why you pant bc u aint using oxygen to make that ATP
472
what is lactic acid fermentation
anaerobic respiration after glycolysis lactic acid is made, making the end products 2 atp and lactic acid
473
In alcohol fermentation a molecule of ___ is removed from ______ forming ______.. the _____ is converted to _____ by attaching hydrogen from NADH
CO2 is removed from pyruvate forming acetaldehyde, acetaldehyde is converted to ethanol ..
474
In lactic acid fermentation, pyruvate molecules accept ____ from NADHs and form ______
accept hydrogens and form lactic acid
475
alcohol fermentation occurs in ____ cells and is used in what food making
occurs in yeast cells and is used in wine, beer, and bread making
476
chemicals of life
vitamins and minerals, lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids
477
carbohydrate definition
a molecule composed of sugar subunits that contain carbon , hydrogen, and oxygen 1:2:1 ratio
478
when carbohydrates are not used (aka you dont do anything that requires energy aka u sit down all day) what happens to them
if there is too much of them not being used they get stored as fat... BREAD MAKES U FAT?!?!
479
polymer defintion
a molecule composed of three or more subunits
480
monosaccharide definition
a single sugar unit
481
isomer definition
one of a group of chemicals that have the same chemical formula but different arrangements of the atoms
482
most sugars end in what suffix
"ose"
483
what are 3 common monosaccharides
glucose, fructose, and galactose (they are all isomers - they all have the same chemical formula)
484
the combination of what forms a disaccharide
the combination of two monosaccharides
485
sucrose is a disacharide formed from what
gluicose and fructose
486
maltose is a disaccharide from what
two glucose
487
lactose is a dissacharide from what
glucose and galactose
488
disacharides are formed from what process
dehydration synthesis/dehydrolysis
489
dissacharide definition
a sugar formed by the joining of two monosaccharides
490
dehydration synthesis/dehydrolysis definition
the process by which larger molecules are formed by the removal of water from two smaller molecules (removing water from two monosaccharides to form disaccharide)
491
hydrolysis definition
the process by which larger molecules are split into smaller molecules by the addition of water (water breaks disaccharide into 2 monosaccharides)
492
polysaccharide definition
a carbohydrate composed of many monosaccharide subunits
493
starch definition
a plant polysaccharide made of many subunits of glucose... used to store energy
494
glycogen definition
the form of carbohydrate storage in animals
495
cellulose definition
a plant polysaccharide that makes up plant cell walls
496
starches can exist in what two forms
amylose and amylopectin
497
triglyceride definition
a lipid composed of glycerol and 3 fatty acids
498
fat definition
a lipid composed of glycerol and saturated fatty acids; solid at room temperature
499
oil definition
a lipid composed of glycerol and unsaturated fatty acids; liquid at room temperature
500
glycerol and fatty acids can be combined by what?
dehydration synthesis..
501
how are triglycerides formed?
by the union of glycerol and 3 fatty acids through dehydration synthesis
502
What do lipids do for our bodies
part of cell membranes, cushion organs, vitamin carriers and help make hormones, keeps us warm in the cold
503
wax definition
a long-chain fatty acids joined to long chained alcohols or carbon rings.. lipid that is insoluble in water.. very stable.. good for waterproofing things like plant leaves animal feathers ..
504
phospholipid definition
a lipid with a phosphate molecule attached to the glycerol backbone, making the molecule polar; the major components of cell membranes
505
protein definition
a chain of amino acids that form the structural parts of cells or act as antibodies or enzymes.. folded and coiled into specific shapes
506
amino acids definition
a chemical that contains nitrogen; can be linked together to form proteins
507
proteins are made of building blocks called
amino acids
508
peptide bond definition
the bond that joins amino acids
509
polypeptide definition
a chain of three or more amino acids
510
essential amino acid definition
an amino acid that must be obtained from FOOOOD (8 of them)
511
a proteins shape or structure determines what?
its function.. the structure is determined by its sequence of amino acids
512
4 types of proteins
primary protein structure, secondary protein structure, tertiary protein structure, quaternary protein structure
513
whats the primary protein structure
every protein starts at this level.. its the unique arrangement of amino acids in the polypeptide
514
whats the secondary protein structure
the coiling and folding of amino acid chains (Polypeptides).. caused by hydrogen bonds
515
whats the tertiary protein structure
the coiled and folded polypeptide is further twisted into a 3D shape
516
whats the quaternary protein structure
when multiple polypeptidescome together
517
denaturation definition
changes in the shape of a protein by physical or chemical factors .. once dealt with it can go back to its original form
518
coagulation definition
permanent change in the shape of a protein.. cooking an egg is an example.. if you cool it off again it will be forever cooked
519
chemical reactions occur when?
when molecules collide
520
what does adding thermal energy do for chemical reactions
adding thermal energy makes molecules move faster which creates more collisions which increases the chance of a chemical reaction.. however too much can destroy the cell
521
catalyst definition
a chemical that increases the rate of chemical reactions without altering the products or being altered itself (used over and over again)
522
enzyme definition
a protein catalyst that permits chemical reactions to proceed at low temperatures
523
substrate definition
a molecule on which an enzyme works
524
active site definition
the area of an enzyme that combines with the substrate
525
cofactor definition
an inorganic ion that helps an enzyme combine with a substrate molecule
526
coenzyme definition
an organic molecule synthesized from a vitamin that helps an enzyme to combine with a substrate molecule
527
enzymes are identified by what suffix
"ase"
528
What factors affect enzyme reactions
pH, Substrate molecule concentration, temperature, competitive inhibition
529
how does pH affect enzyme reactions
different enzymes function better in specific pH's
530
how does substrate molecule concentration affect enzyme reactions
substrates are a molecule on which an enzyme works.. the more substrate molecules available for enzymes to attach to, the more chance of a collision and a chemical reaction... however if there are way more substrates than enzymes eventually theyll just be extras floatin around doin nothing till the enzymes free again
531
how does temperature affects enzymes
reaction rates increase as the temperature increases (thermal energy = reactions.. remember?) the high temp makes the molecules move faster = more collisions.. at too high temperatures proteins change shape .. then theyre less effective or not effective at all bc the substate cant bind anymore
532
how competitive inhibition effects enzymes
inhibitors are shaped a lot like substrate and compete with the substrate for the enzyme's active site.. when inhibitors are joined to the enzyme the substrate cant bind with the enzyme and it doesnt function properly
533
competitive inhibitor definition
a molecule with a shape complementary to a specific enzyme that competes with the substrate for access to the active site of the enzyme and blocks chemical reactions
534
feedback inhibition definition
final product builds up then some of the final product will stop the enzymes to limit production rates
535
metabolic pathways
orderly sequences of chemical reactions, with enzymes regulating each step of the reaction
536
precursor activity definition
the activation of the last enzyme in a metabolic pathway by the initial substrate
537
allosteric activity definition
a change in an enzyme caused by the binding of a molecule
538
the 4 components of the digestive process
1. ingestion (eating)
2. digestion (enzymes breaking down food)
3. absorption (transport digested nutrients to the cells)
4. egestion (remove food waste)
539
where does physical (Mechanical) digestion begin and what does it do
in the mouth, where food is chewed and formed into bolus by the tongue .. it breaks food into smaller pieces increasing the surface area for chemical digestion
540
amylase definition
an enzyme that breaks down complex carbohydrates
541
about salivary glands (3)
saliva is produced here, saliva contains amylase (breaks down carbs), it gives us tastes and makes food slippery and swallowable
542
about the esophagus
brings food from mouth to stomach, peristaltic contractions move the food down the tube,
543
peristalsis/peristaltic contractions
contractions that make the food in the esophagus move from the mouth to the stomach down the tube
544
where is initial protein digestion
the stomach
545
about the stomach
food storage, protein digestion, 3 layers of muscles.. muscle contractions churn food, can expand to hold more food, cells line the inner wall; they secrete various fluids that help with digestion, contractions of the stomach mix the food with stomach fluids (gastric fluids)
546
what does gastric fluid (stomach fluid) contain?
mucus, hydrochloric acid (HCl), pepsinogens and more...
547
what does hydrochloric acid (HCl) do (in stomach)
kills harmful substances ingested with food, converts pepsinogen to pepsin which is a protein digesting enzyme
548
what regulates the movement of food from the esophagus to the stomach and to leave the stomach?
sphincters
549
what are sphincters
a muscle that regulates the opening and closing of a tubelike structure
550
what regulates the movement of food from the esophagus to the stomach and to leave the stomach?
lower esophageal sphincter (allows food into the stomach) and the pyloric sphincter (food to leave to the small intestine).........sphincters
551
what are sphincters and how do they wrok
a muscle that regulates the opening and closing of a tubelike structure.. contraction closes the opening and relaxation allows things to enter through
552
contractions of the stomach do what
mix the food with gastric juices/fluid
553
what kind of digestion is the stomach
both chemical and physical
554
mucus definition
a protective lubricating substance composed of mostly protein
555
pepsin definition
a protein digesting enzyme produced in the stomach
556
what is the pH of a stomach
2.0-3.0 .. very acidic
557
how does the stomach protect itself from the protein digesting enzymes and the acid
a layer of alkaline mucus
558
whats heartburn
because the esophagus doesnt have that mucus lining the stomach has, if some of the acid in the stomach gets into the esophagus thats heartburn
559
ulcer definition
a lesion on the surface of an organ
560
how do you get ulcers
when the mucus lining of the stomach breaks down the cell membrane is exposed to hydrochloric acid and pepsin.. the destruction of the cell membrane leads to a peptic ulcer
561
in which area of the small intestine does most digestion occur
the first 25-30 cm called the duodenum; does digestion
562
whats the second part of the small intestine
jejunum; does absorption
563
whats the third part of the small intestine
ileum; does absorption
564
how does the small intestine move things through the tube
much like the esophagus through peristalsis
565
what happens in the small intestine
secretes digestive enzymes, absorption occurs here
566
villi definition
small fingerlike things extending into the small intestine to increase surface area for absorption .. covered in microvilli
567
microvilli definition
microscopic fingerlike things further increasing surface area for absorption
568
important chemical testsd
1. benedicts reagent
2. iodine test
3. biuret
4. sudan IV dye
569
iodine test
TEST FOR STARCH, .. when negative it remains amber, when there is starch it turns black/blue
570
biuret test
TEST FOR PROTEIN.. its blue.. when no protein is present (negative) it remains blue.. when positive it turns purple
571
sudan IV
TEST FOR FAT... if fat is present a red or pink colour will result
572
translucence test
TEST FOR FAT.. if theres fat rubbing it on unglazed paper will make it clear
573
whats the induced fit model
the shape of the active site on an enzyme does not EXACTLY fit the substrate and the substrate forces its way
574
examples of inhibitor moelcules
cyanide, carbon monoxide, penicillin
575
acid definition
pH lower than 7
576
base definition
pH higher than 7
577
metabolism definition
all chemical reactions that occur within cells
578
monomer definition
basic subunit used to build larger moelcules
579
catabolic reactions definition
complex chemicals broken down into smaller units
580
anabolic reactions definition
small units combine to make larger molecules
581
each villus (villi) has what to do what
capillaries and lacteals.. capillaries absorb monosaccharide and amino acids to the circulatory system (carbs and protein) and fats are absorbed through lacteals to the circulatory system
582
lacteal definition
small vessel that transports the products of fat digestion to the circulatory system
583
capillary definition
blood vessel that connects arteries and veins.. site of fluid and gas exchange
584
secretin definition
a hormone released from the duodenum that stimulates pancreatic and bile secretions
585
because food gets all covered in hydrochloric acid and pepsin in the stomach, how does the small intestine protect itself from this stuff?
when the food enters the small intestine covered in HCl and pepsin, prosecretin is converted into secretin bc of the acids.. secretin is absorbed into the bloodstream and carried to the pancreas where it signals the release of fluid which contains NaHCO3 that get carried to the small intestine and buffer the HCl and raise the pH to 8.0 the basic pH inactivates pepsin
586
what all does pancreatic secretion contain
NaHCO3 (raises pH)
Amylase (breaks down carbohydrates)
lipase (breaks down lipids)
trypsin and chymotrypsin (Break down protein)
587
enterokinase definition
an enzyme of the small intestine that converts trypsinogen to trypsin
588
trypsin definition
a portein digesting enzyme
589
erepsin definition
an enzyme that completes protein digestion by converting short-chain peptides into amino acids
590
lipase defintion
a lipid digesting enzyme
591
summarize the protein digestion in the small intestine
trypsin: protein to peptides
erepsin: peptides to amino acids
592
summarize the carbohydrate digestion in the small intestine
pancreatic amylase: starch to maltose
| maltase: maltose to glucose
593
what produces bile
the liver
594
bile salt definition
a part of bile that breaks down large fat globules
595
when the stomach is empty where is bile held
the gallbladder
596
when there are fats in the small intestine what hormone is released
cholecystokinin (CCK)
597
cholecystokinin (CCK) definitin
a hormone secreted by the small intestine that stimulates the release of bile salts
598
the breakdown of fat into smaller droplets is what kind of digestion
PHYSICAL... The physical digestion of fat prepares it for the chemical digestion by creating a larger surface area for enzymes to act on
599
how does CCK work
fats enter the duodenum and stimulate the release of the hormone CCK, CCK is carried by the bloodstream to the gallbladder, CCK stimulates the release of bile salts from the gallbladder, bile salts emulsify fats
600
Various functions of the liver
makes bile salts, and holds em in the gallbladder; makes blood protein, forms urea from a nitrogen group in amino acids, maintains blood sugar level, stores glycogen, stores some vitamins, converts harmful things (alcohol) into less harmful things
601
gallstone definition
crystals of bile salts that form in the gallbladder
602
jaundice definition
the yellowish discolouration of the skin and other tissues brought about by the collection of bile pigments in the blood (pile of gallstones)
603
cirrhosis definition
chronic inflammation of the liver tissue characterized by the growth of nonfunctioning fibrous tissue
604
colon definition
the largest segment of the large intestine where water reabsorption occurs
605
material not absorbed by the end of the small intestine enters what
the large intestine through the ilial-caecal sphincter
606
what is the caecum
a small pouch at the beginning of the small intestine that has the appendix which is useless to humans it digests cellulose in some herbivores
607
functions of the large intestine
absorb water, absorb vitamins, eliminate undigested material from the digestive tract
608
some bacteria live in the large intestine.. they do what? what vitamin does this create?
the bacteria can digest material that we may not be able to digest, this creates vitamin K
609
what is the rectum
the holding pouch for feces
610
whats the anus
the sphincter allowing feces to exit the body
611
what are hemorrhoids or piles
when rectal veins get inflamed.. the inside diameter of anus decreses and the passage for feces is difficult and painful
612
what does fiber do to ur poo
it retains water throughout the digestive tract making ur poo soft.. diarrhea
613
seeing, hearing or smelling food will
produces saliva (nervous system)
614
gastrin definition
a hormone secreted by the stomach that stimulates the release of HCl
615
entergastrone definition
a hormone secreted by the small intestine that decreases gastric secretions and motility
616
organs and sphincters of the digestive tract in order
```
mouth
pharynx
esophagus
--cardiac sphincter
stomach
--pyloric sphincter
small intestine
--ileal-caecal sphincter
large intestine
rectum
--anal sphincter/anus
```
617
whats the pharynx
the throat where nasal cavity and mouth meet, and esophagus and trachea meet.. keeps food from getting in the lungs.. contains the epiglottis which does the food keeping from lungs thing
618
epiglottis
lil flappy in the pharynx that keeps food from the lungs
619
physical fitness depends on what
the ability to deliver oxygen and chemical fuels to the cells of the body
620
atmosphere is mde of what
78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1%other
621
what is breatinhing
the movement of air between the atmosphere and our body (inspiratrion and expiration)
622
respiratory membrane definition
membrane where diffusion of oxygen and gases occurs between the living cells of the body and the external environment
623
respiration definition
all processes that supply oxygen to the cells of the body (breathing, gas exchange, cellular respiration)
624
external respiration
takes place in the lungs and involves the exchange of O2 and CO2 molecules between the air and blood
625
internal respiration
takes place within body and involves exchange of O2 and CO2 molecules between blood and tissue fluids
626
gas exchange definition
diffusion that allows for carbon dioxide to leave the capillaries surrounding the alveoli allowing the entrance of oxygen into the capillary... carbon dioxide out,,, oxygen in
627
how does air enter the respiratory system
through the two nasal cavities or the mouth.. hairs and mucus lining the nasal cavity keep foreign particles OUT
628
trachea definition
the windpipe, takes air into the lungs, lined with cilia (filter extra particles)
629
cilia definition
tiny hairlike structures found on some cells that sweep away foreign debris
630
what two openings branch from the pharynx
the trachea and the esophagus
631
what does the cilia do in the trachea
the lil hairs and mucus traps debris and then the hairs sweep it up and out of the trachea and into the pharynx away from the lungs..
632
what supports the wall of the trachea
bands of cartilage keep the trachea open
633
air from the pharynx enters what
the larynx
634
whats the larynx
the voicebox, 2 thin elastic ligaments called vocal cords, when the air passes the vocal cords vibrate creating sound
635
what even is the adams apple
cartilage that protects the larynx
636
inhaled air moves from the trachea to what
the bronchi ..
637
whats the bronchus
bronchi; there are 2 bronchus that bring air to the left and right lungs.. where they branch into smaller airways called bronchioles
638
unlike the trachea and bronchi the bronchioles do not contain what
cartilage bands
639
air moves from bronchioles to tiny air sacs called what
alveoli
640
alveoli are surrounded by what
capillaries
641
what do the alveoli do
the point of gas exchange, increase surface area for gas exchange, very thin air sacs, site of gas diffusion
642
oxygen moves from the air within alveoli to ____ while carbon dioxide moves from capillaries into the air in the ____
from the air within alveoli into capillaries while carbon dioxide moves from capillaries into the air in the alveoli
643
pleural membrane definition
a thin membrane that surrounds the outer surface of the lungs and lines the inner wall of the chest cavity
644
diaphragm
band of muscle shaped like a dome, separates thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity, helps in breathing
645
during inspiration (inhalation); the diaphragm muscle does what
contracts.. pulling downward (flatening), the chest volume increases and the pressure in the lungs decrease .. the pressure in the atmosphere is greater than in the chest and forces air into the body to equalize the pressure
646
during experation (exhaling) ; the diaphragm muscle does what
diaphragm relaxes, returning to dome shape.. chest volume decreases, and pressure increases in the chest cavity and is now greater than the atmospheric pressure , air moves out of the lungs to equalize it
647
ribs
bones that protect the thoracic cavity
648
intercostal muscles
muscles between ribs that raise and lower the rib cage; aid in breathing
649
when intercostal muscles contract
pulls the ribs upward and outward; increasing the volume of the chest lowers pressure in the chest cavity and air moves into the lungs
650
when intercostal muscles relax
rib cage falls, diaphragm relaxes, air moves OUT
651
when labelling the body stuff the right is on the ____ and the left is on the ____
right is on the left and left is on the right, its backwards bc its facing you or something
652
oxygen continuously moves from the ____ into the ____ and carbon dioxide moves from the ____ to the ____
oxygen; alveoli into blood
| carbon dioxide; blood into alveoli
653
Inhalation steps (5)
1. diaphragm contracts down
2. intercostal muscles contract out
3. increased lung volume
4. environmental air pressure is greater than lung pressure
5. air rushes in to equalize pressure
654
exhalation steps (5)
1. diaphragm relaxes up
2. intercostal muscles relax
3. decrease in lung volume
4. lung pressure is greater than environment air pressure
5. air rushes out to equalize pressure
655
diffusion across alveoli:
- oxygen moves from air into the lungs across the alveoli and into the capillary where it becomes attached to hemoglobin
- carbon dioxide moves from blood across alveoli and into the air of the lungs
656
characteristics in the alveoli that help with diffusion
have thin walls, kept moist, richly supplied with blood vessels, large surface area
657
arteries carry blood
away from the heart
658
veins cary blood
to the heart
659
hemoglobin definition
the oxygen carrying molecule in red blood cells
660
oxyhemoglobin definition
hemoglobin that is bound to oxygen
661
carbonic anhydrase definition
an enzyme found in red blood cells that speeds the conversion of carbon dioxide and water to carbonic acid
662
buffer definition
a substance capable of neutralizing acids and bases thus maintaining the original pH of the solution
663
gasses diffuse from and area of ____ pressure to an area of ____ low pressure
high pressure -> low pressure
664
pressure of oxygen is _____ in the atmopshere and _____ in the veins and tissues
highest in atmosphere and lowest in veins and tissues
665
pressure of carbon dioxide is _____ in tissues and veins and ____ in the atmosphere
CO2 is highest in the tissues and lowest in the atmosphere
666
some CO2 combines with water from plasma to form _______ this decreases the carbon dioxide _______ in the blood ensuring that carbon dioxide continues to _____ into the blood
to form carbonic acid, decreases carbon dioxide pressure.. making sure CO2 continues to diffuse into the bloood
667
chemoreceptor definition
nerve receptor.. if stimulated the diaphragm begins breathing movements .. more breathing = lower CO2 levels
668
brathing movements are controlled by what
by nerves from the medulla oblongata in the brain
669
medulla oblongata
sensitive to CO2 Levels in blood, if CO2 levels are too high medulla tells diaphragms and intercostals to increase activity.. once CO2 levels are normal medulla stops sending an increase activity message
670
bronchitis definition
an inflammation fo the bronchial tubes
671
emphysema definition
a respiratory disorder characterized by an overinflation of the alveoli
672
breathing movements are regulated by
the medulla and by chemoreceptors in the carotid artery and the aorta
673
factors affecting breathing rate
exercise; CO2 lvls increase so u breath more, hormones; adrenaline, high altitude; less oxygen is present = more breathing.. this is why athletes train in high altitude places
674
carbon monoxide
acts as a competitive inhibitor in the red blood cell, it attaches to hemoglobin this makes hemoglobin unavailable for O2 or CO2
675
there are three types of muscles
cardiac, smooth, skeletal/striated
676
when muscles contract part of the body..
moves
677
cardiac muscles
muscle that makes the heart beat, found only in the heart. contracts and relaxes involuntarily.
678
smooth muscle
involuntary; found lining of organs (Like stomach, esophagus for peristalsis, uterus)
679
skeletal muscles
voluntary; makes the bones of the skeleton move.
680
skeletal muscles are attached nto bones by what
tendons
681
muscles ____ when they contract and ______ when they relax
shorten when contract, lenghten when they relax
682
a body part moves only when
a contracting muscle pulls it
683
antagonistic muscles
a pair of skeletal muscles that work against each other to make a joint move
684
flexor definition
the muscle that must contract to bend a joint
685
extensor definition
the muscle that must contract to straighten a joint
686
sarcolemma definition
the delicate sheath that surrounds muscle fibres
687
myofilament definition
a thread of contractile proteins found within muscle fibres (either myosin or actin)
688
myosin definition
a fibrous protein that forms (together with actin) the contractile filaments of muscle cells and is also involved in motion in other types of cells.
689
actin definition
a protein that forms (together with myosin) the contractile filaments of muscle cells, and is also involved in motion in other types of cells.
