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1
Q

The 3 principles of cell theory:

A

The 3 principles of cell theory:
* all living things are made up of one or more cells
* cells are the most basic unit of structure and function in all living things
* all cells are created by pre-existing cells

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2
Q

The function of mitosis in nuclear division within cells:

A
  • mitosis produces 2 daughter nuclei that have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell
    and each other
  • mitosis division results in each of the daughter cells having an exact copy of the DNA of the parent
    cell
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3
Q

The purpose of each stage of the cell cycle:

A

interphase: stage that always precedes mitosis when DNA is replicated

prophase: the stage in which chromosomes become visible and the nuclear envelope
disappears

metaphase: the stage in which the chromosomes arrange themselves at the centre of the cell

anaphase: the stage in which each of the 2 threads of a chromosome (chromatid) migrates to
the opposite pole

telophase: the stage in which the nuclear envelope reforms to produce 2 daughter cells

cytokinesis: the stage in which division of cytoplasm into 2 daughter cells takes place

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4
Q

What are proteins made up of?

A
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5
Q

Primary structure of proteins?
Secondary?
Tertiary?
Quaternary?

A

The primary structure is made up of the unique sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain. This structure is held together by peptide bonds. A change to just one of the amino acids in this chain can result in a change to the protein’s structure and function.

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6
Q

What is the purpose of proteins?

A

growth, repair and development

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7
Q

Carbohydrates?
-what elements are they made of?
-types of carbohydrates?
-purpose?

A

o the most basic carbohydrate is a monosaccharide – monosaccharides are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

o when combined in pairs, monosaccharides form disaccharides through a condensation reaction and the formation of glycosidic bonds

o carbohydrates are used within the body as a source of energy

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8
Q

how are phospholipids formed?

A

phospholipids are formed when one of the fatty acids of a triglyceride is substituted by a phosphate-containing group

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9
Q

how are triglycerides formed?

A

triglycerides are formed by the condensation of 1 molecule of glycerol and 3 molecules of fatty
acid

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10
Q

structure of a phospholipid

A

phospholipid is made up of 2 parts, a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail – this molecule structure forms a bi-layer that is important for all membrane functions

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11
Q

purpose of lipids?

A

insulation, protection and as an energy source

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12
Q

what are the roles of enzymes

A

o proteases including trypsin
o carbohydrases including amylase
o lipase

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13
Q

What happens when the SA is too small, compared to volume?

A

specialised exchange and transport
mechanisms are required to maximise the rate of exchange

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14
Q

how does diffusion affect rate of echange?

A
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15
Q

how does temperaure affect the rate of exchange?

A
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16
Q

how to metabolism affect the rate of exchange?

A

Same as with temperature, the higher the rate the more energy.
higher metabolic rate increase energy and therefore movement of molecules, therefore increasing rate of diffusion

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17
Q

what is diffusion?

A

Diffusion is the net movement of anything generally from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.

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18
Q

what is facilitated diffusion?

A

polar molecules, such as water, glucose and ions rely on this as they cannot diffuse across the membrane.

-diffusion is assisted by proteins in the membrane.

-ions and small polar molecules are transported by channel proteins.

-some of these open and close, these are called gated channels.

-larger polar molecules use carrier proteins (substance binds to carrier protein, protein then changes shape which transfers the substance to the other side of the membrane.

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19
Q

what is osmosis?

A

Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from an area of high water concentration (dilute solution) to an area of low water concentration (concentrated solution) across a semipermeable membrane.

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20
Q

How does active transport through the cell membrane?

A

process that uses energy to move substances against a conc gradient.

-involves carrier proteins that use ATP as a source of energy.

-these types of active transport carrier proteins are often called pumps.

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21
Q

examples of co-transport mechanisms in the cell surface membrane?

A
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22
Q

purpose of deoxyribonucleutic acid (DNA)

A

holds genetic information

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23
Q

purpose of ribonucletic acid (RNA)

A

RNA transfers genetic information from DNA to ribosomes where the proteins are synthesised

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24
Q

structure of DNA

A

-the components of a DNA nucleotide are deoxyribose, a phosphate group and one of the organic
bases adenine, cytosine, guanine or thymine

-a DNA molecule is a double helix with 2 polynucleotide chains held together by hydrogen bonds
between specific complementary base pairs

-each nucleotide is formed from pentose, a nitrogen-containing organic base and a phosphate group

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25
structure of RNA
-the components of an RNA nucleotide are ribose, a phosphate group and one of the organic bases adenine, cytosine, guanine or uracil -an RNA molecule is a relatively short single stranded polynucleotide chain -each nucleotide is formed from pentose, a nitrogen-containing organic base and a phosphate group
26
what is formed when two nucleotides react together via condensation reaction?
a condensation reaction between 2 nucleotides forms a phosphodiester bond
27
definiton: pathogen include examples
microorganism which are the causative agents of disease examples: bacteria, virus, protists, fungi
28
different ways in which pathogens enter the body
Direct transmission: -physical contact with an infected person or contaminated surface (for example skin-to-skin contact) -sharing of needles -unprotected sexual contact Airborne: -pathogen is carried by dust or droplets in the air, can exist in the air for some time (for example inhaling infected droplets) Indirect transmission: -vehicle transmission (for example ingesting infected food or water (faecal-oral)); blood from inanimate objects (for example bedding) -being bitten by an infected ‘vector’ (for example insect bites)
29
How infectious diseases can spread amongst populations and communities
* inadequate sanitation (for example lack of access to clean water and inadequate sewage disposal) * lack of social distancing due to dense population * lack of accessible health promotion information
30
The definition of an antigen and an antibody:
Antigen: antigen - a substance that is recognised by the immune system as self or non-self and stimulates an immune response Antibody: - a blood protein produced in response to, and counteracting, a specific antigen
31
white blood cells
latin name is leukocytes acts as the bodies defence system made in bone marrow in long bones
32
plasma
latin name is plasmatis made up of 90% water liquid part of the blood produced in the liver
33
red blood cells
latin name is erythrocytes carries oxygen disc shaped= more SA= carry more oxygen made in bone marrow in long bones transports oxygen to the tissues
34
platelets
formed in red bone marrow produces thermbokinase, which is a chemical that is needed for blood clottting helps to repair tissues and close wounds internally.
35
structure and function of cell surface membrane
o fluid mosaic model o control of passage of substances into and out of the cell o site of antigens
36
structure and function of nucleus
o contains chromosomes
37
structure and function of mitochondria
o respiration producing adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
38
structure and function of ribosomes
o protein synthesis/translation
39
structure and function of rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
o protein synthesis and packaging o lipid synthesis and storage
40
structure and function Golgi apparatus and Golgi vesicles
o packaging of proteins for transport
41
structure and function of centrioles
o involved with separation of chromosomes during cell division
42
structure and function of lysosomes
o digestion / breakdown of worn-out cell parts and invading microbes
43
what is the link between antigens and the initiation of the body’s response to invasion by a foreign substance:
* antigens as chemical markers found on the surface of cells * ability of the body to recognise self and non-self-antigens * recognition of non-self-antigen leading to the initiation of an immune response
44
The role of non-specific and specific defenses to protect the body against invasion from a foreign substance:
* non-specific defences: o use of physical and chemical barriers o inflammation o phagocytosis * specific defences: o actions of T-cells o actions of B-cells
45
The differences between cell-mediated immunity and antibody-mediated immunity including:
* cell-mediated response is associated with T-lymphocytes destroying pathogens (causative agents) without producing antibodies * antibody-mediated response is associated with B-lymphocytes destroying pathogens (causative agents) by producing antibodies against it
46
What is the role of T and B memory cells in the secondary immune response:
* they trigger a stronger and more rapid immune response after encountering the same antigen * role of vaccinations in relation to T and B memory cells
47
injury: definition
o defined as damage to the body caused by external force
48
trauma: definition
o is defined as an injury that has the potential to cause disability or death
49
how does the body react to trauma?
o involuntary inflammatory response o loss of organ function o bone structure deformity/damage/loss of structure o haemorrhaging o multi organ failure o ischemia o proliferation phase
50
how does the body react to injury?
o involuntary inflammatory response o proliferation phase
51
The role of using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanning in the detection and monitoring of trauma and injury:
o uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to generate detailed images of inside the body
52
Considerations of using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanning in the detection and monitoring of trauma and injury:
o patient medical history including medical implants containing magnetic metals o preparing the patient including the removal of all external metallic objects
53
epidemiology: definition
o study and analysis of the distribution and patterns of disease in population and why they occur
54
incidence: definition
▪ occurrence of new cases of disease, injury, or other medical conditions over a specified time period
55
prevalence: definition
▪ the proportion of a population with a disease or a particular condition at a specific point in time
56
mortality: definition
▪ occurrence of death
57
mortality rate: definition
▪ the frequency of death in a population over a specified time period
58
morbidity: definition
▪ the state of having a disease or a medical condition
59
how is epidemiology used to provide information to plan and evaluate strategies to prevent disease?
o identify the cause of disease o determine the extent of disease o identify trends and patterns of the incidence of the disease o study the progression of disease o plan and evaluate preventative and therapeutic measures for a disease or condition o develop public health policy and preventative measures
60
how does health promotion prevent the spread and control of disease and disorder?
* communication: o raising awareness of required behaviours through a range of mediums (for example media campaigns) * policy and systems: o systematic change to procedures, regulations or law to enforce required behaviour (for example applying restrictions) * education programmes: o improving knowledge and empowering individuals to adapt own behaviour * health promotion for specific disease and disorders: o targeted awareness raising and campaigns
61
what are the normal expected ranges for physiological measurements ? What factors which may affect these measurements:
Physiological measurements Normal expected range for an adult aged 19 to 65 blood pressure systolic mmHg:90–120 diastolic mmHg:60–80 heart rate 60 to 100 beats per minute(bpm) respiratory rate at rest 12 to 20 bpm temperature 36 to 37.5°C factors: o age o weight o exercise o sex o overall health
62
topographical: definition
o by bodily region or system
63
anatomical: definition
o by organ or tissue
64
* physiological: definition
o by function or effect
65
how are erythrocytes specialised?
-small and flexible= to move through narrow vessels -biconcave shape= allows it to have a large surface area for oxygen to pass -no nucleus= allows more room for hemoglobin -lots of hemoglobin= carries oxygen
66
what is the function of erythrocytes?
to transports oxygen around the body
67
what is the function of a neuron?
to send electrical impulse and chemical signals to and from the brain.
68
how are neurons specialised?
Cell body (containing nucleus and cytoplasm) Axon (transmits information away from the nucleus) Dendrite (receive messages from other neurons)
69
what is the function of squamous epithelial cells?
to facilitate the diffusion of gases and small molecules.
70
how are squamous epithelial cells specialised?
Simple squamous epithelium tissue is a lining tissue and is one cell thick. It’s made from flattened specialised squamous epithelial cells, forming a thin, smooth and flat layer - ideal for rapid diffusion if necessary.
71
what is the function of a sperm cell?
Deliver genetic information to the egg cell for fertilization
72
how is a sperm cell specialised?
Head has a strong cap called an acrosome which contains digestive enzymes to penetrate the female egg. Midpiece contains lots of mitochondria for movement. Long tail for swimming to the egg.
73
what is the function of an ova?
carry the set of chromosomes from the female and create the right environment to enable fertilization.
74
how is an ova specialised?
-Nucleus houses genetic material. -Zona pellucida to stop more than one sperm fertilising the egg. -Corona radiata to supply proteins needed to fertilise the egg.
75
what is the function of a striated muscle cell?
allows the body to contract and relax
76
how are striated muscle cells specialised?
-long and share a nuclei and cytoplasm, known as the sarcoplasm in muscles. -contain many mitochondria, specialised endoplasmic reticulum known as sarcoplasmic reticulum, and a number of microfibrils. -Each muscle cell is surrounded by a membrane called the sarcolemma.
77
what is the equation for magnification?
78
how does homeostasis contribute to maintaining a healthy body?
maintains stability and function of the physiological systems and cells when there are changes to internal and external conditions that would otherwise prevent enzymes from functioning normally
79
why is it important to use significant figures and science notation?
* makes calculation with large or small numbers less cumbersome * reduces the chances of data errors
80
what is the process of the sliding filament theory for muscle contraction?
-The calcium ions binds to troponin, changing its shape and so moving tropomysin from the binding site. -Myosin binds with ATPase to create a cross bridge. -ATPase causes ATP to become ADP the energy produced produces a powerstroke, which allows contraction of the muscle to take place. -The myosin detaches from the Actin and the cross-bridge is released when ATP binds with the Myosin head. This process of muscular contraction can last for as long as there are adequate ATP and Calcium ions stores available. The repetition of this cycle leads to the shortening of the sacromere.
81
what are the functions of the: -kidneys -ureter -bladder -urethra
kidney- filters blood and removes waste ureter- transports urine bladder- stores urine urethra- excretes urine (releases)
82
what does the bowmans capsule and glomerulus do?
filtration of blood
83
function of proximal convoluted tubule?
re-absorption of nutrients, ions and water
84
function of the loop of henle
concentration of urine, key to osmoregulation
85
function distal convoluted tubule?
further re-absorption
86
function of collecting duct
final urine formation
87
osmoregualtion meaning
the process of maintaining water balance through the nephron.
88
Secondary protein structure
The secondary structure involves hydrogen bonds forming between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another amino acid further down the chain. This causes the polypeptide chain to coil into either an alpha-helix or a beta-pleated sheet structure.
89
Tertiary structure
The tertiary structure forms when the polypeptide chain folds and twists further to create a complex 3D structure. This specific structure is held together by many bonds, including: Hydrogen bonds - These are individually weak but provide strength in large numbers. Ionic bonds - These form between positive and negative R groups. Disulfide bridges - These form between R groups that contain sulphur (such as cysteine). Hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions - These are weak interactions between polar and non-polar R groups.
90
Quaternary structure
The quaternary structure involves two or more polypeptide chains held together by the same bonds found in the tertiary structure of a protein (hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide bridges, and hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions). It can also involve the addition of non-protein groups known as prosthetic groups.
91
compare the different structures of proteins!

biology (7 decks)

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