Biology Flashcards

1
Q

scientific thinking steps in order

A
  • observe
  • hypothesize
  • predict
  • experiment
  • conclusion
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

what is an element

A
  • substance that cannot be broken down chemically into other substances
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

what is an atom

A
  • a bit of matter that cannot be subdivided any further without losing its essential properties
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

basic atomic structure

A
  • nucleus is composed of protons & neutrons
  • the nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of electrons
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

what are isotopes?

A
  • atoms that have the same # of protons, but more or fewer neutrons
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

what determines an atoms properties?

A

of protons

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

how many elements are in the human body & what are the BIG FOUR?

A
  • 25 elements
  • oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

what determine’s how an atom will bond?

A
  • electrons
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

the number of protons in an atom is equal to:

A
  • the number of electrons
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

why is carbon so important for life?

A
  • carbon is able to share its 4 valence electrons with up to 4 other atoms
  • a huge variety of complex molecules are possible
  • carbon mostly bonds w/ oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen & other carbons
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

what are ions?

A
  • charged atoms
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

ionic bonds:

A
  • TRADE of electrons
  • two oppositely charged ions attract each other
  • results in neutral compound
  • ex: NaCl
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

covalent bonds:

A
  • two atoms SHARE electrons
  • electron cloud surrounds both atoms
  • single or double covalent bonds
  • STRONGEST bond
  • ex: skin
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

hydrogen bonds:

A
  • bonds between a slightly positive hydrogen atom in one molecule and a slightly negative atom in the other molecule
  • weakest chemical bond
  • ex: water-water
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

why is water crucial to life:

A
  • hydrogen bonds = water cohesive for carrying nutrients
  • high heat capacity (heat absorption form sun)
  • lower density when frozen (ice floats)
  • universal solvent
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

what is acidity?

A
  • the amount of hydrogen in a solution
  • pH (potential of Hydrogen)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

acids:

A
  • pH lower than 7.0
  • higher concentration of H+
  • H+ is very reactive
  • ex in order from most acidic: stomach acid, soda, orange juice, coffee
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

bases:

A
  • pH higher than 7.0
  • higher concentration of OH-
  • ex in order from least basic: blood, baking soda, ammonia, bleach
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

blood pH contains:

A
  • buffers
  • can quickly absorb excess H+ ions to keep a solution from being too acidic
  • and quickly release H+ ions to counteract any increases in OH- concentration
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

the four major macromolecules:

A
  • carbohydrates
  • lipids
  • proteins
  • nucleic acids
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

carbohydrates:

A
  • carbon + H2O
  • primary fuel for cells
  • form structure of cells in all organisms
  • composed of monosaccharides = simple sugar
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

lipids:

A
  • significantly more C-H bonds than carbs
  • more storable energy
  • triglycerides = 3 carbons with fatty acid tails
  • fatty acid tails = carbon with hydrogen attached (acid bc of Oxygen)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

saturated fats:

A
  • each carbon in hydrocarbon chain is bound to two H atoms = tends to be solid @ room temp.
  • bonds form a linear structure
  • ex: cheese
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

unsaturated fats:

A
  • at least 1 double bond link 2 carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain
  • liquid at room temp
  • bonds form a crooked shape
  • ex: olive oil
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
what is hydrogenation?
- chemical process / artificial addition of hydrogen atoms to an unsaturated fat to make the fat more saturated - straightens the hydrocarbon tail shape by converting some of the double bonds to single - our bodies don't digest these well
26
cholesterol:
- semi rigid ring structure, a sterol - all sterols have 4 fused carbon rings - important component of cell membrane
27
steroid hormones:
- based on cholesterol - estrogen & testosterone - estrogen = regulation of memory & mood - testosterone = muscle growth
28
phospholipids:
- major component of cell membrane - negative charge - hydrophilic - two fatty acid chains & phosphorus atom in the glycerol "head" region - double layer in every cell of our body = phospholipid bilayer
29
proteins:
- composed of C,H,O & nitrogen - structural, protection, regulation, enzymatic, transport, DNA making - made up of amino acids - 9 essential amino acids
30
enzymes:
- proteins that increase likelihood for a reaction to occur - speed up chemical reactions in the body - lower activation energy needed for processes
31
mutations
- incorrect amino acid sequences - nonfunctional enzymes - essential to evolution
32
nucleic acids:
- of the nucleus - make of nucleotides = molecule of sugar, phosphate group, & nitrogenous base - carry genetic info (ATGC)
33
DNA:
- deoxyribonucleic acid - ATGC - hydrogen bonds hold AT / GC together - double stranded
34
RNA:
- ribonucleic acid - single stranded - AU / GC
35
cell
smallest unit of life that can function independently & perform the necessary functions of life & reproduce
36
cell theory
- all living organisms are made up of cells - cells come from preexisting cells
37
eukaryotic cells
- contains a nucleus (DNA) - contain specialized subregions (organelles)
38
prokaryotic cells
- don't have a nucleus - DNA resides in middle of the cell - 2/3 of all living organisms
39
prokaryotic cell structure:
- plasma membrane = encloses contents - cytoplasm = fluid inside the cell - DNA = genetic info - ribosomes = genetic info into protein structure - cell wall = protect & shape cell - capsule = protective outer coating - pili = hair-like projections for attachment - flagellum = whip-like projection(s) for cellular movement
40
rough endoplasmic reticulum
- picks up RNA and turns them into proteins - transports proteins to the smooth ER - rough = covered in ribosomes
41
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
- synthesizes sterols & lipids - sends these to the Golgi - liver cells contain much smooth ER for detoxifying
42
golgi apparatus
- tells proteins where to go
43
mitochondria
- ATP maker - different cells have different # of mitochondria depending on energy needs - ex: liver cells have >2,500 mito, RBC have 0 mito. (mitos. eat oxygen)
44
lysosome
- breaks down everything - breaks down proteins & RNA & viruses - digestive enzymes - acidic
45
organelles that specifically plant cells have
- chloroplasts = convert energy obtained from sun - vacuole (found in some animal cells) = water storage & waste disposal - cell wall = helps the plant have a rigid stalk
46
endosymbiosis theory
- explains the presence of chloroplasts & mitochondria - mito & chloro = also contain DNA - both divide by splitting (fission) - DNA in mito & chloro are more related to bacterial DNA
47
purpose of the plasma membrane
- synthesize & store energy - hold contents of cell in place - take in nutrients - allows interaction w/ environment & other cells - phospholipid bilayer
48
recognition proteins
- markers that ID cells
49
membrane proteins
- structure - accelerate reactions on the plasma membrane
50
transport proteins
- provide passageway for molecules through cell
51
receptor proteins
- bind to external chemicals that regulate processes within the cell - send / receive signals
52
simple diffusion
- molecules pass directly through plasma membrane without assistance of another molecule
53
facilitated diffusion
- molecules move across plasma membrane with help of a channel or carrier molecule
54
osmosis
- passive diffusion of water across a membrane
55
tonicity
- balance of a solute in a solution
56
isotonic solution
- equal balance of solute in solvent
57
hypotonic solution
- concentration on the outside of the cell is lower than inside - water diffuses INTO cells - unlike plant cells, animal cells may explode in hypotonic solutions (lyse)
58
hypertonic solution
- concentration of solutes outside cell is higher than inside - cell shrivels up (crenate)
59
active transport
- movement of molecules into & out of a cell that requires the INPUT OF ENERGY - primary active transport = uses ATP directly - secondary active transport = not direct use of ATP
60
exocytosis
- shuttles molecules out of the cell - vesicles 1st enclose the particle & then merge with the plasma membrane to release their contents - dumps large quantities of material outside of cells - sometimes used by lysosomes
61
nucleus
- large & most prominent organelle - genetic control center - stored DNA info - composed of nuclear membranes (2 bilayers) w/ pores for protection - composed of chromatin (aka chromosomes) = fibers of DNA coated with proteins
62
tight functions
- protein interactions that act like a super glue to tightly attach membranes - water proof
63
desmosomes
- proteins that are like velcro - contain hooks that attach tightly, but allows for signals to transport through - can be broken apart to release tension
64
gap junctions
- pores that allow passage of materials between cells
65
key energy conversion processes:
- photosynthesis - cellular respiration
66
kinetic energy
- motion
67
potential energy
- energy stored in an object
68
thermodynamic
- heat structure - 1st law: energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted - 2nd law: energy conversion is not perfectly efficient, energy is always lost (in form of heat)
69
ATP
- adenosine triphosphate - adenine + ribose sugar + 3 phosphate - 3 negative charges will repel, so they need a lot of energy to be pushed together - ATP is used for ALL chemical reactions in the body - mitochondria produces ATP - phosphorus is a strong element, hungry for oxygen
70
photosynthesis:
- uses energy from sunlight to make food (glucose) - organic molecules are produced - O2 is a biproduct - sunlight + water + CO2 --> oxygen & sugar
71
where does photosynthesis take place
- chloroplasts
72
thylakoid
- membrane structure where light energy is converted to chemical energy - that energy is released into the surrounding liquid (stroma), then is turned into sugar
73
light energy
- type of kinetic energy made of photons - photons are organized into waves - wavelength corresponds to the amount of energy being carried out by the photon
74
pigments
- molecules that absorb light
75
chlorophyll
- main pigment molecule in plants that absorbs light energy from the sun
76
opsin
proteins that allow us to see color differently
77
NAD
high energy electron carrier
78
ATP + NAD synthesis
ATP + NAD + carbon dioxide go through the calvin cycle --> sugar
79
calvin cycle
1. the enzyme rubisco picks carbon atoms from CO2 molecules in the air & attaches them to an organic molecule 2. the organic molecule is modified into a small sugar called G3P (using energy from ATP & NADPH) 3. some molecules of G3P are used to regenerate the original organic molecule, using ATP
80
most prevalent protein on the planet
rubisco
81
cellular respiration equation
oxygen + sugar + water --> ATP
82
genome
an organisms complete set of DNA (mito. or chloro AND nucleus DNA)
83
chromosomes
- one+ unique pieces of DNA
84
gene
- specific sequence of DNA that carries info necessary for producing a functional product - contains instructions for cells
85
locus
- position of a gene on a chrosome
86
alleles
different versions of a gene that code for the same feature *expression
87
trait
- any single characteristic/feature of an organism *seeing the expression of the allele
88
introns
noncoding regions within genes (25%) *intervening region*
89
genotype
- genes that an organism carries for a particular trait - what is *encoded in that stretch of DNA
90
phenotype
- physical manifestation of gene for a particular trait - what actually ends up being *expressed
91
transcription:
- GOAL: produce mRNA from copying a DNA sequence 1. promoter brings DNA sequence and RNA polymerase to begin 2. Transcribe (AU/GC) & termination signal 3. special nucleotide is placed as cap on end of RNA 4. tail is place on other end of RNA = 200 adenines "poly A tail" for protection
92
translation:
- GOAL: take mRNA made in transcription and make it into a protein 1. tRNA anticodon reads 3 nucleotides at a time 2. codon decides which amino acids go in 3. ribosomes attach to right triplet 4. new amino acid added to polypeptide chain 5. exit site = ribosomes fall off last triplet == completed protein
93
gene regulation
- whether a gene is turned off or on - does the gene produce a protein
94
point mutations
- nucleotide substitution / insertion / deletion
95
chromosomal mutation
- chromosome deletion / relocation / duplication
96
spontaneous DNA
occurs on accident during replication
97
genetic engineering
- manipulation of organisms' genetic material by adding, deleting, or transplanting genes from one organism to another - used in agriculture, health, & forensic science
98
DNA chopping
- foreign DNA is isolated and chopped by enzymes - specific sequences (palindromes) removed - this creates sticky dens = single DNA strand that will find a matching sequence
99
DNA amplifying
- polymerase chain reaction (PCR) - DNA strands are heated = strands seperate - strands are cooled down & synthesized - primer is attached - results in 2 identical copies of original segment of DNA
100
DNA insertion
- bacterial plasmid carried info/enzymes - cut a plasmid w/ restriction enzyme - gene of interest is inserted into plasmid - segments now share bases & fit together - this is cloning
101
DNA growth
- large amounts of DNA create gene library - each piece is inserted into plasmid - plasmid is introduced to different bacterial cell - bacteria are allowed to divide repeatedly, each producing a clone of foreign DNA fragment
102
human growth hormone
- produced by pituitary gland
103
erythropoietin
- produced by kidneys - RBC production
104
telomeres
- sections of noncoding, repetitive DNA - act as protective cap on the tip of each chromosome
105
binary fission
- replication = creates a duplicate of each chromosome - parent cell divides to create 2 daughter cells - asexual reproduction
106
eukaryotic cell cycle:
1. gap 1 = cell's primary growth phase 2. some cells enter G0 (resting phase outside of cell) 3. gap 2 = second period of growth & prep for cell division 4. mitosis = parent cell's nucleus, w/ duplicated chromosomes, divides 5. cytokinesis = cytoplasm is divided into 2 daughter cells, each has complete set of parent cell's DNA
107
cell cycle control system:
*3 primary checkpoints that regulate cell cycle in eukaryotes* 1. G1IS = is DNA damaged/does it have sufficient nutrients? 2. G2IM = begins during synthesis, has DNA replicated properly? 3. spindle assembly = begins during mitosis, are spindle fibers properly build & attached === checks that chromosomes are set to go to the right place
108
DNA replication main enzymes & their functions:
- DNA helicase unwinds the double helix - DNA polymerase synthesizes replacement of DNA & adds onto growing polymer *always adding on 3 prime end
109
apoptosis
cell suicide
110
mitosis (IPMAT)
1. interphase = chromosomes replicate in prep. for mitosis 2. prophase = sister chromatids condense / spindle forms 3. metaphase = sister chromatids line up @ center of cell 4. telophase = terminal stage 5. cytokinesis = cytoplasm divides into 2 daughter cells
111
what is cancer:
- unrestrained cell growth - occurs when disruption of DNA interferes with cell's ability to regulate cell division - error in cell cycle (no G0 phase)
112
metastasis
- cancer cells spread to other cell in body via circulatory & lymphatic systems
113
meiosis
- sexual reproduction - reduces genetic material in gametes & produces gametes that differ - takes place in gonads (egg & sperm)
114
diploid
cells that have 2 copies of each chromosome
115
haploid
meiosis enables organisms to produce haploid gametes (single set of chromosomes)
116
meiosis division rounds:
division 1: homologues separate = IPMAT1 division 2: IPMAT 2
117
difference between meiosis & mitosis:
- between interphase & prophase - as chromosomes condense down, the homologues find each other & perform recombination (crossing over)
118
chiasmata
actual point where the chromosomes cross over
119
sexual reproduction
females = XX males = XY
120
down syndrome
- extra copy of chromosome 21 (3 total copies)
121
trisomy
3 copies of a chromosome
122
turner syndrome (female)
- one x chromosome - short height - web skin between neck & shoulders - underdeveloped ovaries - learning difficulties
123
Klinefelter syndrome (male)
- XXY chromosomes - underdeveloped testes - lower testosterone - development of some female features - long limbs, slightly taller than average
124
XYY male
- taller than average - moderate to severe acne - intelligence may be slightly lower than average - "super males"
125
XXX female
- may be sterile - no obvious physical or mental problems - "metafemales"
126
heredity
passing of characteristics from parent to offspring through parent's genes
127
single-gene traits
- some traits are determined by instructions an organism carries on one gene - *most human characteristics are influenced by multiple genes + environment
128
codominance of genes:
heterozygous individual shows features of both alleles Ex: blood type
129
incomplete dominance of genes:
- phenotype of a heterozygote is intermediate between the phenotypes of two homozygotes
130
antigens
- signposts in the body's immune system - illicit's immune response
131
antibodies
immune system molecules in the bloodstream that attack foreign invaders (self recognition)
132
polygenic traits
- influenced by many different genes
133
pleiotropy
- one gene influences multiple, unrelated genes - ex: siamese cat
134
sex-linked traits
- carried on X chromosome - differ in expression in males & females - ex: males tend to be colorblind more often than females due to only have 1 X chrom.
135
evolution
- changes in allele frequencies of a population over time - populations evolve
136
genetic drift
- frequency of alleles undergo a random change, unrelated to the allele's influence on reproductive success - BIGGEST influence on evolution
137
urey-miller experiment
- flask with water, H2, CH4(methane), and NH3(ammonia) - 5 amino acids formed -