Anatomy & Physiology Flashcards
complementary structure & function
- structure permits function
levels of structural organization:
- chemical = atoms combine to form molecules
- cellular = cells are building block for life
- tissue = similar cell types come together
- organ = structure made of 2+ tissue types that has a specific function
- organ system = group of organs
- organismal level = human body
normal body temp
- 37 celsius
- 98.6 F
cephalic regional terms:
- cephalic = head
- frontal = forehead
- orbital = eye
- nasal - nose
- oral = mouth
cervical regional terms:
- cervical = throat
thoracic regional terms:
- axillary = armpits
- mammary = pectorals
- sternal = sternum
abdominal regional terms:
- umbilical = belly button
pelvic regional terms:
- inguinal = groin
upper limb regional terms:
- brachial = arm
- antecubital = front of elbow
- cubital = elbow
- antebrachial = forearm
- carpal = wrist
lower limb regional terms:
- coxal = hip
- femoral = thigh
- patellar = knee cap
pedal regional terms:
- pedal = foot
- tarsal = ankle
- metatarsal
- digital = toes
- calcaneal = heel of foot
- plantar = bottom of foot
dorsal regional terms:
- scapular = shoulder
- vertebral = spine
- lumbar = lower back
- sacral = buttcrack
- gluteal = A$$
homeostasis
- maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in environment
feedback control in homeostasis:
- variable = what’s being maintained
- stimulus = produces change in variable
- receptor = detects change & responds to stimuli
- input = info set along afferent pathway to control center
- output = info sent along efferent pathway to effector (means to respond)
- response = effector feeds back to reduce/increase effect of stimulus
positive feedback for homeostasis
- rare
- response temporarily increases the original stimulus
- ex: estrogen from placenta > induces oxytocin receptors on uterus > contractions get more vigorous > childbirth
negative feedback for homeostasis:
- reduces effect of stimulus
- ex: moving hand away from hot stove
dorsal body cavity:
- protects nervous system
- two divisions: cranial cavity & vertebral cavity
ventral body cavity:
- houses internal organs (viscera)
- two divisions *separated by the diaphragm: thoracic cavity & abdominopelvic cavity
- thoracic cavity subdivisions = pleural cavities (encloses lungs), mediastinum (pericardial cavity & thoracic organs), pericardial cavity (encloses heart)
serous membranes:
- prevent friction between organ & body cavity wall
- parietal = membrane lining body cavity
- visceral = membrane covering organ
- linings: lungs = pleura, heart = pericardium, abdomen = peritoneum
cilia:
- hair-like structure
- bend/beat to propel substances (ex mucus) along surface of cells
- ciliated cells line upper respiratory tract
microvilli:
- finger-like structures
- increase cell’s surface area
- increases absorption
membrane transport:
- passive transport = no ATP required, substances move DOWN concentration gradient
- active transport = ATP required, usually moves substance AGAINST gradient
passive transport types:
- simple diffusion: lipid soluble solutes simply pass through plasma membrane
-
facilitated diffusion:
1) carrier-mediated = hydrophilic molecules bind to protein carriers to transport them
2) channel-mediated = ex: aquaporin (osmosis) - osmosis: movement of water across membrane (water channels = aquaporin)
types of channels
- leak channels = always open
- gated channels = open due to electrical/chemical signals
active transport types:
- primary active transport: directly uses ATP, Na/K pump
- vesicular transport: endocytosis & exocytosis
Na/K pump:
- Na/K passively diffused by channel-mediated diffusion
- Na/K are pumped by primary-active transport
- 1) cytoplasmic Na+ binds to pump protein 2) binding of Na+ promotes phosphorylation of the protein by ATP 3) phosphorylation = protein changes shape, expelling Na+ outside of cell 4) extracellular K+ binds to pump protein 5) K+ binding = release of phosphate, pump returns to original conformation 6) K+ is released from pump protein & Na+ sites are ready to bind again
cell cytosol maintains:
- high intracellular K+
- low intracellular Na+
endocytosis:
- moves particles into cell
- ex: phagocytosis = macrophage/phagocyte eats a bacterium
exocytosis:
- moves particles out of cell
- secretion
- 1) membrane bound vesicle migrates to plasma membrane 2) proteins at vesicle surface (v-SNAREs) bind with t-SNAREs (target) *t-SNAREs = plasma membrane proteins 3) vesicle & plasma membrane fuse & pore opens up 4) vesicle contents are released to cell exterior
histology
- study of tissues
4 basic tissue types:
1) nervous tissue: brain, spinal cord, nerves, CNS, PNS
2) muscle tissue: contract to cause movement
3) epithelial tissue = forms boundaries between environments
4) connective tissue = supports, protects, binds other tissues
characteristics of epithelial tissue:
- polarity = cell surfaces face different environments
- specialized connections = desmosomes & tight junctions
- supported by CT
- avascular = not many vessels, but innervated
- high regenerative properties
polarity of skin (sides):
- apical surface faces outside environment
- basal surface connected to CT
- basal lamina = noncellular sheet of glycoproteins that filters solutes
- reticular lamina = network of collagen protein fibers
serous membranes are also:
- organs
stratified transitional epithelium function & location:
- cuboidal + squamous
- lines ureters & bladder
- functions: dispensability & protection
simple squamous epithelial function & location:
- diffusion & filtration of H2O, O2, CO2 & small solutes
- located in serous membranes, alveoli of lungs, capillaries, & kidney filtration membranes
stratified squamous epithelial function & location:
- protection
- either keratinized (external/dry skin)
- or non-keratinized on wet skin (esophagus)
simple cuboidal epithelial location & function:
- secretion & absorption of small solutes (ions & glucose)
- found in kidney tubules
simple columnar epithelial function & location:
- absorption & secretion of larger solutes, enzymes & mucus
- found in stomach, intestines, & uterine lining
psuedostratified columnar epithelial function & location:
- propels mucus (goblets)
- can be ciliated or non ciliated
- nuclei are at varying heights = appears stratified
- found in upper respiratory tract
glandular epithelium:
- gland = one+ cells that make & secrete hormones
- endocrine system
muscle tissue types & properties:
- skeletal: attached to bones (striated)
- cardiac: muscles of the heart (intercalated discs striations)
- smooth: muscle of hollow organs (no striations)
connective tissue types & properties:
- CT proper: loose/dense matrix
- lose: areolar, adipose, reticular
- dense: regular, irregular, elastic
- cartilage: firm/flexible matrix
- hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
- bone tissue: calcified matrix
- compact, spongy
- blood: liquid matrix
building/breaking blocks for connective tissue types:
- CT proper: fibroblasts/fibrocytes
- adipose: adipocytes
- cartilage: chondroblasts/chondrocytes
- bone: osteoblasts/osteocytes
- blood: erythrocytes/leukocytes/platelets
elements of connective tissue:
- ground substance: fibroblasts actively secrete matrix
- protein fibers: strongest & most abundant, contains elastic & reticular fibers
- cells
functions of the skin:
- protection: (sweat, pH, melanin)
- regulation of body temp: perspiration
- cutaneous sensations: responses to stimuli
- metabolic functions: sloughing, vitamin D synthesis
- blood reservoir: vasoconstriction & vasodilation
- excretion: secretes nitrogenous waste (ammonia, urea, uric acid)
epidermis:
- outer layer of skin
- keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium
- contains 5 strata (layers)
dermis:
- inner layer of skin
- strong, flexible CT
- contains nerves, blood vessels, hair follicles, oil & sweat glands
5 strata of the epidermis & functions:
1) stratum corneum: horny layer, dead cells, protection
2) stratum lucidum: clear layer, ONLY IN THICK SKIN, contains dead keratinocytes
3) stratum granulosum: granular layer, keratinization begins, water-resistant glycolipids
4) stratum spinosum: prickly layer, prekaratin filaments attached to desmosomes, abundant melanosomes & dendritic cells
5) stratum basale: single row of miotic stem cells, germinativum = active mitosis
cells of the epidermis:
- melanocytes: produce pigment melanin, transfer melanin granules to actively growing keratinocytes
- dendritic cells: start in bone matrix, immune system functions
- keratinocytes: 85-95% of cells in epidermis, keratin = tough skin
clinical application: stretch marks
- extreme stretching of skin = dermal tears that produce white scars (striae)
- acute, short term traumas to skin = blisters (fluid filled pockets that separate epidermal & dermal layers)
clinical application: skin discoloration
- cyanosis: blue skin color due to low oxygenation of hemoglobin
- pallor: blancing/paleness due to anemia, hypertension, or fear
- erythema: redness due to fever hypertension, sclera turns red, inflammation/allergy
- jaundice: yellow cast & sclera due to liver disorders
- bruises: aka ecchymoses/hematoma, clotted blood beneath skin
- brown/black “necklace” bruises: hyper-pigmented areas in axillae/neck ara due to elevated blood glucose levels (associated with diabetes)
layers of dermis & function:
- papillary: thin, outer layer of loose areolar CT proper
- dermal papillae: wavy nipple-like projections that push up into epidermis for strength
- reticular: bulk of dermis, made of dense irregular CT + collagen fibers
- cutaneous plexus: network of blood vessels between layer
- cleavage lines: collagen fibers run parallel to skin surface *important for surgeons making incisions
- flexure lines: dermal folds @ or near joints
hyodermis:
- not a skin layer
- composed of adipose tissue & areolar CT
- anchors skin to underlying tissue
- adipose = shock absorber & insulation
glands of the skin:-
- sudoiferous = sweat for temp. regulation
- apocrine = sexual scent
- sebaceous = oil for lubrication & water proofing (acne = usually inflammation of sebaceous glands)
arrector pili:
- small band of smooth muscle attached to each hair follicle
- produces goosebumps
anatomy of hair:
- dead keratinized cells
- hair shaft: area above scalp where keratinization is complete
- hair root: area within scalp where keratinization is ongoing
anatomy of hair shaft:
- medulla = control core
- cortex = several layers of flattened cells surrounding medulla
- cuticle = outer layer consisting of overlapping layers of single cells
types of hair growth:
- vellus = pale/found on children & adult females
- terminal = coarse, long hair, more appears during puberty
hair growth phases:
- antagen = active new hair production
- catagen = transition phase
- telogen = resting period for follicle
clinical application: hair growth & loss
- alopecia: hair loss/thinning genetically determined & sex-influenced
- male pattern baldness: follicular response to DHT (dihydrotestosterone)
- hirsutism: excessive hairiness in women, caused by tumors on ovaries/adrenal glands = abnormally large amounts of androgen hormone secretion
clinical application: nails
- koilonychia
- spoon nails
- sign of hypochromatic anemia (chronic iron deficiency)
- treated with iron supplements
effects of burns:
- loss of fluids/electrolytes & proteins
- causes dehydration & shock
- opens body to infection
- increases nutritional demands during tissue repair (IV)
wounds & tissue repair:
1) inflammation: clotting & scab/platelets & WBCs arrive to stop bleeding
2) organization: granulation tissue replaces blood clot/ blood supply restored
3) regeneration/fibrosis: replaced w/ fully functional tissue
- fibrosis = scar tissue when body overcorrects
1st degree burn:
- only epidermis is damaged
- acute inflammation
- heals 2-3 days
- mild sunburn
2nd degree burn:
- epidermis & upper part of dermis layer damaged
- blisters
- heals 3-4 weeks
- severe sunburn
3rd degree burn:
- full thickness burn of epidermis & dermis
- nerve endings burnt off
- severe risk of infection
- may require skin grafting (removing skin from non burned part of body & placed on burned area)
skeletal tissue is made of either:
- hyaline cartilage
- elastic cartilage
- fibrocartilage
hyaline cartilage skeletal tissue:
- most abundant type
- numerous fine collagen fibers
- support, flexibility, resist compressive stress
- located: embryonic skeleton, covers ends of long bones, nose, trachea, larynx
the two kinds of hyaline cartilage:
- costal cartilage = attaches ribs to sternum
- articular cartilage = @ joints to reduce friction & absorb compression
elastic cartilage skeletal tissue:
- provides strength & great flexibility
- location on external ear (pinna) & epiglottis (breathing & swallowing food)
fibrocartilage skeletal tissue:
- thick bundles of collagen fibers
- compressible to absorb shock & withstand heavy pressure
- located in intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, discs of knee joint
