Biological Psychology Flashcards
what are some types of neurotransmitters
serotonin - sleep
acetylcholine - muscle action
dopamine - mood
norepinephrine - alertness
GABA - sleep
Glutamate - memory/learning
what is post synaptic potential (PSP)
signal received by post synaptic neuron
if summation reaches threshold neuron will fire
what are inhibitory neurotransmitters
signal still summates => summative effect is not producing cation potential
what is long term protonation
when connections at synapse level become stronger over time
if synapse repeatedly stimulation post synaptic neuron produces more neuroreceptors, presynaptic makes more neurotransmitters
what is long term depression
opposite of long term potentiation
when neuron is not used
how does the brain maintain plasticity
long term potentiation
leads to permanent up-regulation of activity at synapse
what is schizophrenia
disturbances in cognition, behaviour, emotional responsiveness
what is the dopamine hypothesis
that schizophrenia is caused by over reactivity of dopamine system
how do electrical synapses work
involve contact with other cells
cells communicate directly via membrane channels allowing ions to flow directly from one cell to the next
what do electrical synapses allow
faster communication
bidirectional coupling
what is network neuroscience
scientific work that significantly advances our understanding of network organization and function in the brain
what is the Ventral Attention Network
includes temporoparietal junction and ventral frontal cortex
responds to unexpected but behaviourally relevant stimuli in environment
strongly lateralised
what is the Default Mode Network (DMN)
example of a network understanding of cognition
collection of different brain areas that are active during periods of wakeful rest
what is pseudo neglect
part on ventral attention network
caused by lateralisation
stimuli in the left side of space are selectively attended to
what is spatial neglect
disorder of attention
follows stroke in right hemisphere
characterised by deficient or absent awareness of left side of space
what areas are damaged in spatial neglect
ventral attention network
superior longitudinal fasciculus
what is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
way of measuring brain networks
type of neuromodulation study
cam up or down regulate function in one part of brain
measure subjects ability to do tasks before and after TMS
in what behaviours is synaptic function implicated
mental health
sleep and circadian timing
what are three ways of measuring networks in the brain
functional neuroimaging
lesion studies
neuromodulation studies (TMS)
what are afferent and efferent signals
afferent - carried to an organ
efferent - carried away from an organ
what is an MRI
Magnetic Resonance imaging
gives a structural image of the brain
what is an fMRI
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
hemodynamic functional imaging
non invasive
measures the concentration of oxygenated blood in brain
gives a proxy measure of activity
what is a CT
Computerised Tomography
gives structural image of brain
what is a SPECT
Single Photon Emission Computed tomography
relies on radiation
3D image of brain
requires injection/ injection of dye
what is PET
non invasive
hemodynamic functional imaging
modules modified to include a radioactive label and give to subjects
looks at blood flow in tissues
what is an EEG
used to measure electrical activity in brain
non invasive - electrodes on scalp
what is TMS
involves electromagnet applied to scalp surface to up/downregulate specific brain areas
what is a sulcus/sulci
a cleft in cerebral cortex
what is gyrus/gyri
bulge of cerebral cortex
what is a fasciculus
bundle of neurons connection on location of brain to another
what is a ventricle
empty space in CNS filled with CSF
what are meninges
layers of tissue between brain and internal surface of skull
what is cognitive neuroscience
field that studies connection between cognitive/ affective processes and the brain/body
what is cardio-centrism
belief that heart controls thought and emotion
what is encephalon centrism
belief that the brain controls thought and emotion
what are cranial nerves
nerves that come from brain that control sensory and motor functions and autonomous functions
what is phrenology
debunked theory that skull shape determines personality
what is localisation
specific brain areas control specific functions
what is Aggregate Field
theory proposing that mental functions are disturbed across brain rather than localized
what is Reticular theory
proposes that nervous system is a continuous network like a web rather than made up of individual neurons
what is the neuron doctrine
proposes nervous system is made of individual neurons that communicate
what is homunculi
representation of human body in brains motor and sensory cortices
what is structural imaging
technique lets us see structure and composition of brain (how it looks)
what is functional imaging
technique lets us understand processes of the brain (how it works)
what is temporal resolution
level of detail and precision to capture changes in brain activity over time
(timing of neuron processes, when and how)
what is Spatial resolution
level of detail and precision to capture WHERE specific brain activity occurs and differentiate between neural structures or functional areas
what are electromagnetic methods
type of functional imagine
measurement and analysis of electrical and magnetic signals produced by neurons during various cognitive processes
what are hemodynamic methods
type of functional imaging
measurement and analysis of changes in blood flow and blood oxygenation levels in the brain during neural activity
what are types of structural imaging
CT
MRI
DTI
Photo
Staining
what are the three image planes
sagittal - side view
coronal - back view
transverse - top view
what is DTI
type of structural imaging
non invasive
reveals info on white matter
what are types of electromagnetic functional imaging
EEG
MEG
stimulation
single cell recording
what are types of hemodynamic functional imaging
lesion
fMRI
PET
what is single cell recording
electromagnetic functional imaging
invasive - electrode inserted into brain
looks at activity of single neuron
what is TMS
electromagnetic functional imaging
non invasive
uses magnetic fields to introduce electrical activity into brain
stimulates/ inhibits neurons
what is a lesion study
hemodynamic functional imaging
infers function based on spatial location
what is fight or flight response
- action of autonomic nervous system
- threat perceived => sympathetic nervous system activated => increased HR and BP, pupil dilation, glucose released, blood flow to skeletal muscles => after parasympathetic return body to normal
what are the different lobes in the brain
frontal - reasoning, motor, language
parietal - processing
temporal - hearing, memory, emotion
occipital - visual processing
cerebellum - coordinating movement
what are the stages to an action potential
stimulus (threshold reached)
depolarisation (Na in)
action potential
repolarization (Na out, K in)
Hyperpolarisation
resting state
what is plasticity
brains ability to recognise itself forming new neural connections through life
what is affective neuroscience
understand how emotions interact with cognitive processes, shaping our perceptions, decisions and behaviour
what are mirror neurons
neurons that activate when performing an actions and when observing someone else perform the same action
what are functional networks
how different brain regions communicate and work together
what is default mode network
the brain activity when we are at rest
what is consciousness
subjective experiences and self awareness of being ones self
what is Hemi-spatial neglect
a condition where a person is not aware of one side of their environment
usually following brain damage to one hemisphere
what is transdiagnostic
An approach that identifies common factors across multiple mental health conditions, rather than focusing on specific diagnosis to improve understanding and treatment
what is multimodal
using multiple methods to improve understanding of something by capturing different modalities of data and a broader perspective
what are three studies into plasticity
London taxi drivers study
meditation study
braille learning study
what is the affective neuroscience theory (ANT)
found 7 primary emotional systems in mammals
- seeking, lust, care, play, anger, fear, sadness
what is the constructed emotion theory
emotions are not innate but categories constructed through dynamic processes
(unique emotional experiences)
- bodily sensations
- core affect (pleasant/unpleasant)
- conceptual knowledge
what are reward and motivation circuits involved in (affective neuroscience )
addictions
eating disorders
teenage brain
compulsion
motivation
what are social emotions (affective neuroscience)
dynamic interactive processes that connect us
what is emotional contagion (social emotions)
peoples facial expressions, tone of voice, postures etc. can unconsciously influence and be influences by the emotions of others
leads to pro-social behaviour, empathy or panic
what is the neural basis of empathy (social emotions
examine brain activity of individuals while they watched others experience pain using fMRI
same brain regions were activated experiencing and watching someone experience pain
what are types of functional networks
central executive network
visual network
auditory network
language network
default mode network
somatomotor network
salience network
what is sensation
the passive detection of sensory information
what is perception
active interpretation of sensory input
what is the phenomenological approach (phenomenology)
way to measure perception
interesting and informative but not too precise
what is psychophysics
Fencher 1860
a way to measure perception
tries to relate a precisely defines physical stimulus with a precisely measured behavioural response
what ways can perception be measured
phenomenology
psychophysics
what is electromagnetic radiation
waves of energy that are caused by the acceleration of charged particles
what are the physical properties of light
wavelength
intensity
what is wavelength
the distance between two peaks of a wave
length determines what colour is seen
what is intensity
property of light related to brightness
what increases as intensity increases
number of photons per second
what is absolute threshold
the smallest amount of stimulus energy necessary for an observer to detect stimulus
eg. dimmest light you can see
what is the method of constant stimuli
technique for measuring threshold
predetermined set of stimuli
fit a psychometric function to data
slow but accurate
what is a psychometric function
involved in measuring thresholds
a model that shows the relationship between a stimulus and an observer’s performance in a detection task
how can sensation be measured
measuring absolute threshold
eg. psychometric functions
what is a difference threshold
the least amount by which two sensory stimuli can differ for an individual to perceive them as different
what is a JND
just noticeable difference
smallest difference between two stimuli that a person can detect
eg. line length
what is Weber’s law
the ratio of the JND to the standard stimulus is constant
I/I = k
what is the weber fraction
I/I = 0.1
a ratio that represents the smallest change in a stimulus that can be detected under ideal conditions
what is sensory adaptation
he way our senses adjust to different stimuli
brain reduces its processing of repeated or unchanging sensory information over time
eg. dark adaptation
what are examples of sensory adaptation
- most sensitive to sound in quietness of night
- most sensitive to taste after drinking plain water
describe sensory adaptation in terms of sensory sensitivity
- absence of sensory stimulation increases sensitivity
- strong persistent stimulation decreases sensitivity
describe dark adaptation
most sensitive to light half an hour after dark
when first in dark cones are more sensitive
after about 10 minutes rod-cone break
after this rods are more sensitive
why does sensory adaptation occur
evolutionary advantages
allows us to cope with a wide variety of environments
focuses sensory resources on important things
what is retinal stabilisation
stabilised images fade rapidly
our eyes are normally constantly in motion to prevent this
it serves to reduce visual clutter and concentrate on changes
what is the retina
a light-sensitive layer of tissue in the back of the eye that converts images into electrical signals for the brain to process
what is photo transduction
photoreceptors (rods and cones) turn light into electricity
photoreceptors => bipolar cells => retinal ganglion cells
what is the optic nerve and what forms it
carries visual information from the retina at the back of the eye to the brain
formed by axons of retinal ganglion cells
what is the duplex theory
rods and cones differ in structure, number and distribution across the retina
what are rods
type of photoreceptor
neural substrate for night vision
more than cones
sacrifice acuity for sensitivity
in periphery
what are cones
type of photoreceptor
neural substrate for day vision
less than rods
sacrifice sensitivity for acuity
in central vision
what is photopic vision
day vision
what is scotopic vision
night vision
describe sound waves in terms of frequency
- longer distance between peaks means lower frequency (pitch)
- shorter distance between peaks means higher frequency (pitch)
describe sound waves in terms of loudness
small amplitude of waves - soft
tall amplitude of waves - loud
how does transduction occur on the tongue
chemicals dissolved in water stimulate taste buds on the tongue
what chemicals on the tongue give what tastes
sucrose => sweet
acid => sour
sodium => salty
quinine => bitter
glutamate => umami
how does transduction occur in the nose
molecules carried in the air stimulate specific odour receptors in olfactory epithelium
electrical signals pass directly into olfactory bulb in the frontal lobe
what are mechanoreceptors
specialised neurons that respond to mechanical pressure (touch)
what are types of mechanoreceptors that react to light touch
light touch to hair - basket cells
light touch without hair - Meissner corpuscles
what are types of mechanoreceptors that react to deep touch
Pacinian corpuscles
Ruffini Endings
what are types of mechanoreceptors that react to temperature and pain
free nerve endings
what is proprioception
perception of the body in space
what is kinesthesis
sense of muscle movement
part of proprioception
what is Interoception
internal body senses
what is the vestibular system
a sensory system in the inner ear that helps you maintain your balance and sense of orientation
what structures are involved in transmitting sound waves from the auditory canal to cochlea
tympanic membrane (outer ear)
ossicles (middle ear)
cochlear (inner ear)
describe transduction in the ear
- sound waves travel down external auditory canal and vibrate eardrum (tympanic membrane)
- in the middle ear ossicles transfer these vibrations and amplify them
- vibrations are picked up by hair cells in cochlea, transforms them into electrical signals which are passed down the auditory nerve
what is place theory of audition
frequency is encoded according to position of basilar membrane
- high frequencies encoded near tip of cochlear spiral
- low frequencies encoded near centre
what is the basilar membrane
a membrane in the inner ear that converts sound waves into neural signals
what is astigmatism
a common eye condition that causes blurry or distorted vision
what do photoreceptors do
convert light into electrical signals that the brain can interpret as vision
what is the crystalline lens
a transparent, biconvex structure that allows the eye to focus light onto the retina
what is the cornea
the clear, dome-shaped front layer of the eye that controls and focuses light, and protects the eye from debris and germs
what is the fovea
a small indentation in the centre of the retina that provides the sharpest vision in the eye
how does the eye focus (accommodation)
The cornea and lens bend light so that it can focus on the retina at the back of our eye
what are the attributes of colour
hue (different colours)
brightness (light vs dark)
saturation (red vs pink)
what is subtractive colour mixture
mixing produces darker colour
- mixing paints/ colour filters
what are additive colour mixtures
mixing produces lighter colour
- mixing coloured lights/ TV
what is young-Helmholtz theory
three types of photoreceptor
long-wavelength preferring
medium-wavelength preferring
short-wavelength preferring
what colour has lots of L photoreceptors
red
what colour has lots of S photoreceptors
Blue
what colour has equal L and M and less S photoreceptors
yellow
what are problems with trichromacy
1) complementary colours (reddish green or yellowish blue)
2) simultaneous colour contrast (grey square surrounded by blue looks yellowish)
3) negative after images (red stimulus gives green after image)
what is opponent process theory
L,M,S cone outputs recoded into six primaries
red, green, blue, yellow, black, white
what are the primary colours antagonistic pairs
red-green
blue-yellow
black-white
what is synaesthesia
merging of the senses
experience unusual perceptions
these perceptions can be triggered by sound, small, letters, numbers etc.
what is pointillism
a painting technique that uses small dots of colour to create an image
what is trichromacy
the idea that humans perceive colour by combining the wavelengths of red, green, and blue light in the eye
what is achromatopsia
a rare inherited condition that causes partial or total colour blindness and other vision problems
what is dichromatic vision
a condition that limits a person’s ability to distinguish colours
what is protanopia
a type of red-green colour blindness that makes it difficult to distinguish between red and green colours
what is deuteranopia
a type of red-green colour blindness that makes it difficult to distinguish between red and green
