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Biology > Biological Molecules (Chapter 1 & 2) > Flashcards

Biological Molecules (Chapter 1 & 2) Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are monomers?

A

They are the smaller units from which larger molecules are made

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2
Q

What are polymers?

A

They are molecules made from a large number of monomers joined together

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3
Q

List 3 examples of monomers

A

Monosaccharides

Amino acids

Nucleotides

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4
Q

What is a condensation reaction?

A

It is a reaction which joins two molecules together with the formation of a chemical bond and involves the elimination of a water molecule

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5
Q

What is a hydrolysis reaction?

A

It breaks down a chemical bond between two molecules and involves the use of a water molecule

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6
Q

What is a monosaccharide?

A

It is the monomers from which larger carbohydrates are made

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7
Q

Give three examples of a monosaccharide

A

Glucose

Galactose

Fructose

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8
Q

What is bond formed from a condensation reaction of two monosaccharides?

A

Glycosidic bond

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9
Q

How are disaccharides formed?

A

By the condensation of two monosaccharides

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10
Q

How is the disaccharide maltose formed?

A

Condensation reaction of two glucose molecules

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11
Q

How is the disaccharide sucrose formed?

A

Condensation reaction of glucose and fructose

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12
Q

How is the disaccharide lactose formed?

A

Condensation reaction of glucose and galactose

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13
Q

How many isomers of glucose is there?

A

Two ( alpha and beta glucose)

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14
Q

How do alpha glucose and beta glucose differ?

A

Alpha glucose has both OH on bottom (if that makes sense lol)

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15
Q

How are polysaccharides made?

A

By the condensation of manny glucose units

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16
Q

How is the polysaccharide glycogen and starch made?

A

Condensation of alpha glucose

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17
Q

How is the polysaccharide cellulose formed?

A

Condensation of beta glucose

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18
Q

What is the main energy store in plants?

A

Starch

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19
Q

What is starch a mixture of?

A

A mixture of two polysaccharides of alpha glucose- amylose and amylopectin

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20
Q

What is amylose? (Structure and what is it made of)

A

Long unbranded chain of alpha glucose

Has a coiled structure which is good for storage

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21
Q

What is amylopectin? (Structure, enzymes and what is it made of)

A

Long branched chain of alpha glucose

Side branches allow enzymes to get to glycosidic bond easily- glucose can be released quickly

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22
Q

What is the test for starch?

A

Iodine test

Brown/ orange ———> blue/ black

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23
Q

What is the main energy store in animals?

A

Glycogen

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24
Q

Describe the structure of glycogen

A

Like amylopectin but has loads more side branches

Very compact

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25
Q

What is cellulose used for?

A

Cell walls in plants

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26
Q

Describe the structure and bonding in cellulose

A

Long unbranded chains of beta glucose

Cellulose chains linked by hydrogen bonds to form microfibrils (for structural support)

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27
Q

What is the test for sugars? and the colour change

A

Benedict’s test

Blue —> green —> yellow —> orange —> brick red

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28
Q

How to test for non reducing sugars

A

Add hydrochloric acid and bring to boil

Add sodium hydrogen-carbonate to neutralise

And then carry out Benedict’s test

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29
Q

What is a reducing sugar?

A

All monosaccharides

Some disaccharides ie maltose and lactose

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30
Q

How are triglycerides formed?

A

Via condensation reaction of one glycerol and three fatty acids

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31
Q

What bond is formed between glycerol and fatty acid?

A

Ester bond

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32
Q

Is the r group of a fatty acid saturated or unsaturated?

A

It can be either

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33
Q

What are phospholipids made of?

A

One glycerol, 2 fatty acids and a phosphate containing group

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34
Q

What do phospholipids make up?

A

The bilayer of a cell membrane

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35
Q

How are phospholipids catered for their function?

A

Heads are hydrophilic

Tails are hydrophobic

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36
Q

What are triglycerides mainly used for?

A

Energy storage molecule

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37
Q

Why are triglycerides catered for their role?

A

Long hydrocarbon tails contain lots of chemical energy- lipids contain about twice as much energy per gram as carbohydrates

They are insoluble so don’t effect water potential

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38
Q

Do triglycerides clump together?

A

Yes

They clump together as insoluble droplets in cells because tails are hydrophobic

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39
Q

What is the test for lipids?

A

Emulsion test

Turns milky

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40
Q

Describe how to undertake an emulsion test

A

Shake the test substance with ethanol for a minuet

Pour the solution into water

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41
Q

What is the monomers for proteins?

A

Amino acids

42
Q

List the three groups in an amino acid

A

Amine group NH2

Carboxyl group COOH

R group (R) (side chain)

43
Q

How many amino acids are there and how do they differ?

A

20

R groups are different

44
Q

What bond is formed between the condensation of two amino acids?

A

Peptide bond

45
Q

How are dipeptides formed?

A

Condensation of two amino acids

46
Q

How are polypeptides formed?

A

Condensation of many amino acids

47
Q

What may functional proteins contain?

A

One or more polypeptides

48
Q

What is the primary structure of a protein?

A

The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain

49
Q

What is the secondary structure of a protein?

A

Hydrogen bonds form between amino acids in the chain

This cause it to COIL into an alpha helix or FOLD into a beta pleated sheet

50
Q

What is the tertiary structure of a protein?

A

More bonds form between different parts of the polypeptide chain including hydrogen, ionic and disulphide bridges.

For amino acids made from a single polypeptide chain the tertiary structure is there final 3D structure

51
Q

What is the quaternary structure of a protein?

A

The way polypeptide chains are assembled together

For proteins made from more than one polypeptide chain the quaternary structure is there final 3D structure

52
Q

List the 4 functions of different proteins

A

Enzymes- eg. Digestive enzymes

Antibodies- variable regions

Transport proteins- in cell membrane

Structural proteins- eg keratin, collagen

53
Q

What is the test for proteins?

A

Biuret test

Blue —> purple

54
Q

List the steps to carry out a biuret test

A

Add sodium hydroxide to turn solution alkaline

Add copper (ll) sulphate

55
Q

What do enzymes do?

A

Lower activation energy of the reaction it catalyses

56
Q

What is the induced fit model of enzyme action?

A

Substrate binds to active site

The active site slightly changes shape to form enzyme substrate complex

The substrate splits in two and forms the products

57
Q

Do enzymes properties relate to their tertiary structure?

A

Yes

Very specific- enzymes can usually only catalyse one reaction

58
Q

Describe lock and key model

A

Substrate fits perfectly into active site

Substrate splits in two and makes the products

(Active site dosent change)

59
Q

What acctually are enzymes tho?

A

Biological catalysts

60
Q

How does temperature affect enzyme activity?

A

A rise in temp causes molecules to vibrate more (kinetic energy)

Molecules move faster which will increase the likelihood a collision will cause a reaction

Although above a certain temp these vibrations will cause bonds to break

Active site changes shape and enzyme substrate complex can not be made (denatured enzyme)

61
Q

How does pH affect enzyme activity?

A

Each enzyme has an individual optimum temperature if not working around that pH the enzyme will denature as it can mess up their hydrogen and ionic bonding

62
Q

How does enzyme concentration affect rate?

A

More enzyme molecules there is in a solution will increase the likelihood a substrate molecule will collide with it. So increasing enzyme conc will increase the rate

However if substrate conc is limited there comes a point where there is more than enough enzyme molecules to deal with the available substrate. So adding more will have no further effect

63
Q

How does substrate concentration affect rate of reaction?

A

Higher substrate concentration the faster the reaction. Only true up to saturation point. After this there are so many substrate molecules that the enzymes have about as much as they can cope with LOL. So adding more will make no further effect.

64
Q

Describe what competitive inhibitors do

A

They have similar shape to substrate

Compete with substrate for active site but no reaction takes place

They block the active site so no substrate molecule can fit

65
Q

Describe what non competitive inhibitors do

A

Bind to another binding site on the enzyme causing the active site to change shape so substrate cannot bind to the active site anymore LOL.

66
Q

What does DNA stand for LOL.

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid

67
Q

What does RNA stand for?

A

Ribonucleic acid

68
Q

What is DNAs role?

A

Holds genetic info

69
Q

What is RNAs role?

A

Transfer genetic info from DNA to ribosomes

70
Q

What are ribosomes formed of?

A

RNA and Proteins

71
Q

What are both DNA and RNA?

A

Polymers of nucleotides

72
Q

What is DNA made of?

A

Phosphate group

Deoxyribose

Nitrogen containing organic base

73
Q

What is RNA made of?

A

Ribose

Phosphate group

A nitrogen containing organic base

74
Q

What bond is formed from the condensation reaction between two nucleotides?

A

Phosphodiester bond

75
Q

Describe the structure of DNA

A

Double helix with two polynucleotide chains

Held together by hydrogen bonding between bases

76
Q

Which bases in DNA bond together?

A

A & T

C & G

77
Q

Which bases in RNA bond together?

A

C & G

A & U

78
Q

What did scientists doubt about DNA due to its simplicity?

A

Whether it carries the genetic code

79
Q

Describe semi conservative replication of DNA

A

DNA helicase breaks hydrogen bonds between bases- unwinding the double helix

Each original strand acts as a template- complementary base pairing

Condensation reactions join nucleotides of the new strands together

New hydrogen bonds form between bases

Each new DNA molecule contains one strand from original DNA molecule and one new strand

80
Q

What did Watson and crick discover?

A

The structure of DNA

81
Q

What validated Watson and crick?

A

Meselson and stahl discovering semi conservative replication

82
Q

Describe the experiment meselson and stahl used to prove semi conservative replication

A

Two samples of bacteria grown- one in light nitrogen and one in heavy nitrogen broth. As bacteria replicated they took up nitrogen from the broth to make nucleotides.

A sample of DNA was taken from each batch of bacteria and then spun in a centrifuge. The DNA with heavy nitrogen settles lower down than the light nitrogen.

Then bacteria grown in heavy broth was taken out and put in a light broth. Bacteria left for one round of DNA replication. Another DNA sample taken and then spun in a centrifuge.

It showed DNA had a mixture of heavy and light nitrogen therefore semi conservative LOL.

83
Q

What does ATP stand foR?

A

Adenosine triphosphate

84
Q

What is ATP made up of?

A

Adenine

Three phosphate molecules

Ribose

85
Q

What does the hydrolysis of ATP make?

A

ADP (adenosine diphosphate)

Inorganic phosphate

86
Q

Which enzyme catalyses the hydrolysis of ATP?

A

ATP hydrolase

87
Q

What is inorganic phosphate used for?

A

Phosphorylate other compounds- often making them more reactive

88
Q

What is the hydrolysis of ATP used for?

A

Energy requiring reactions within cells

89
Q

How is ATP resynthesises?

A

Condensation of ADP and inorganic phosphate

(Catalysed by ATP synthase during either respiration or photosynthesis)

90
Q

Is water a metabolite?

A

Yes

In many metabolic reactions, condensation and hydrolysis reactions

91
Q

Is water a good solvent?

A

Yes it is an important solvent in which metabolic reactions occur

92
Q

What property of water means it is good at buffering changes in temperature.

A

High heat capacity

93
Q

Does water have a large latent heat of vaporisation?

A

Yes

Providing a cooling effect with little loss of water through evaporation

94
Q

What does strong cohesion between water mean?

A

It can support columns of water in tube like transport cells of plants and produce surface tension where it meets air.

95
Q

Where are inorganic ions found?

A

In cytoplasm and body fluids of organisms

96
Q

What do hydrogen ions determine?

A

PH

More H+ ions present the lower the pH

97
Q

What do iron ions do?

A

Important part of haemoglobin (carries o2)

98
Q

What do sodium ions do?

A

Co transport- help glucose and amino acids across cell membranes

99
Q

Why are phosphate ions essential?

A

Important component of ATP and DNA

100
Q

Is water a polar molecule?

A

Of course babe

Biology (9 decks)

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