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AQA A level Biology > Biological molecules > Flashcards

Biological molecules Flashcards

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1
Q

Name two types of starch?

A

Amylose

Amylopectin.

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2
Q

How is it like glycosidic bond formed?

A

Condensation reaction between two monosaccharides

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3
Q

What is the condensation reaction between for a 1,4-glycosidic bond?

A

Between the hydroxyl groups at carbon 1 of one monosaccharide and carbon 4 of the other monosaccharide

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4
Q

What is the condensation reaction between for a 1,6-glycosidic bond?

A

Between the hydroxyl groups at carbon 1 of one monosaccharide and carbon 6 of the other monosaccharide

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5
Q

What is the structure of alpha glucose?

A

H at the top, OH at the bottom

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6
Q

What is the structure of beta glucose?

A

H at the bottom OH at the top

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7
Q

What glucose molecule is amylopectin made up of?

A

Alpha glucose

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8
Q

What glycosidic bonds is amylopectin made up of?

A

Alpha 1,4

Alpha 1,6

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9
Q

Describe the structure of amylopectin?

A

Highly branched due to the 1–6 glycosidic bonds

Elliptical

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10
Q

What does amylopectin being highly branched mean?

A

Rapid hydrolysis because many points for the enzyme to act on

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11
Q

What does the elliptical structure of amylopectin mean for it?

A

Compact

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12
Q

Amylopectin

  • molecule
  • bonds
  • shape and structure
  • benefits of structure
  • benefits of shape
A 
Alpha glucose
Alpha 1-4, alpha 1-6
Highly branched due to 1-6 binds 
Elliptical
Branched means rapid hydrolysis because lots of points for enzymes to act
Compact due to elliptical shape
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13
Q

Amylose

  • molecule
  • binds
  • shape
  • spread out/ compact
  • respiration
A

Alpha glucose
Alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds
Alpha helix naturally coils (single chain)
Compact - fewer OH groups exposed on the helix so less of an osmotic effect
Slow hydrolysis for respiration because only 2 enzyme attachment points

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14
Q

Molecules that make up amylose?

A

Alpha glucose

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15
Q

Amylose bonds

A

Alpha 1-4 glycosidic bond

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16
Q

Amylose structure

A

Alpha helix which naturally coils up (single chain)

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17
Q

Amylose spread out/compact

A

Compact = few OH group is exposed on the helix so less of an osmotic affect

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18
Q

Amylose hydrolysis points

A

Slow hydrolysis for respiration because they’re only two enzyme attachment points

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19
Q

Glycogen

Molecule
Bond
Branched?
Hydrolysis 
Compact/spread out?
Compared to starch
A 
Alpha glucose
Alpha 1-4, alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds
Highly branched due to many 1,6 bonds
Spherical
Branches allow rapid hydrolysis to produce glucose because there are many enzyme attachment points
Compact so more can be stored
Less dense and more soluble than starch
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20
Q

Molecules that make up glycogen

A

Alpha glucose

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21
Q

Glycosidic bonds in glycogen

A

Alpha 1,4

Alpha 1,6

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22
Q

Describe glycogen structure?

A

Highly branched due to many alpha 1,6 glycosidic bonds

Spherical

Branched allow rapid hydrolysis because many enzyme attachment points

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23
Q

What molecules is cellulose is made up of?

A

Beta glucose

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24
Q

What glycosidic bonds does cellulose have?

A

Beta 1,4 glycosidic bonds

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25
Q

Is cellulose insoluble or soluble?

A

Insoluble

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26
Q

Describe the structure of cellulose

A

Straight chain with staggered ends so no overall points of weakness

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27
Q

Quality to cellulose

A

Intermolecular forces mean it’s very flexible

H bonds break and reform with other OH groups

Each chain linked by H bonds forming strong fibres

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28
Q

Cellulose

  • molecules
  • bonds
  • soluble/insoluble?
  • structure
  • forces
A

Beta glucose
Beta 1,4 glycosidic bonds
Insoluble
Straight chain with staggered ends so no overall points of weakness

Intermolecular forces mean it’s very flexible

H bonds break and reform with other OH groups

Each chain linked by H bonds forming strong fibres

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29
Q

What are carbohydrates?

A

Naturally occurring sugars, starches and fibre.

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30
Q

What are all carbohydrates made up of?

A

Sugar molecules.

Sugar molecules can link together to form starches and fibre

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31
Q

In the body what (carbohydrates) is broken down

A

Starches and sugars are broken down in the digestive system to glucose

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32
Q

Name three examples of complex carbohydrates

A

Starch

Glycogen

Cellulose

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33
Q

What are the four carbohydrates we study at A-level

A

Starch (amylopectin and amylose)

Glycogen

Cellulose

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34
Q

Compare the monomers of amylopectin, amylose, glycogen and cellulose

A

Amylopectin - alpha glucose

Amylose - alpha glucose

Glycogen - alpha glucose

Cellulose - beta glucose

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35
Q

Compare the shape of amylopectin, amylose, glycogen and cellulose

A

Amylopectin - elliptical

Amylose - helical

Glycogen - spherical

Cellulose - straight chained

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36
Q

Compare the glycosidic bonds of amylopectin, amylose, glycogen and cellulose

A

Amylopectin - 1-4, 1-6

Amylose - 1-4

Glycogen - 1-4, 16

Cellulose - 1-4

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37
Q

Compare the branched/unbranched of amylopectin, amylose, glycogen and cellulose

A

Amylopectin - branched

Amylose - unbranched

Glycogen - branched

Cellulose - unbranched

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38
Q

Compare the monomers orientation in cellulose and glycogen

A

Cellulose - monomers upside down

Glycogen - monomers not upside down

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39
Q

What is small things are present in cellulose ?

A

Microfibres

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40
Q

Celulose is found in

A

Plants

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41
Q

Glycogen is found in

A

Animals and fungi

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42
Q

Amylopectin and amylose are found in

A

Plants

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43
Q

What do all of the four complex carbohydrates have in common?

A

Insoluble so do not affect water potential

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44
Q

Which complex carbohydrates are compact and what does this mean?

A

Compact because helical (amylose)
Compact because spherical (glycogen)
Compact because elliptical (amylopectin)

So more storage

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45
Q

Discussed the size of starch

A

Large so cannot pass out of the membrane

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46
Q

How is cellulose adapted to be strong and flexible for plant cell walls?

A

Strong due to chains linked by hydrogen bonds forming strong fibres

Flexible because hydrogen bonds can break and reform with different OH groups

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47
Q

What are the monomers of carbohydrates

A

Monosaccharides

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48
Q

Give an example of simple carbohydrate monosaccharides

A

Glucose, fructose, galactose

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49
Q

Talk about glucose

Type of sugar, mers

A

Glucose is a hexose sugar

There are two types of glucose - alpha glucose and beta glucose they are isomers of each other

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50
Q

How is sucrose formed?

A

Condensation reaction between glucose and fructose molecule

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51
Q

How is lactose formed?

A

Condensation reaction between a glucose molecule and galactose molecule

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52
Q

How is maltose formed?

A

Condensation reactions between two alpha glucose molecules

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53
Q

How are disaccharides formed?

A

Condensation reaction between

two monosaccharides so that a glycosidic bond forms between them and a molecule of water is released

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54
Q

What are glycosidic bonds between?

A

The OH group form one monosaccharide and the OH group from another monosaccharide

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55
Q

What is sugar a general term for?

A

Monosaccharides and disaccharides

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56
Q

What do reducing sugars include?

A

All monosaccharides and some disaccharides (maltose and glucose)

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57
Q

What can all sugars be classified as?

A

Reducing or non-reducing

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58
Q

What do non-reducing sugar is include

A

Some disaccharides and all polysaccharides

59
Q

Explain how to test for reducing sugars

A

Add Benedictus reagent to sample

Heat in water bath

Positive result = coloured precipitate forms (bricks red)

60
Q

How does the colour of the precipitate formed in a positive Benedicts test reflect the concentration of the reducing sugar?

A

Blue -> green -> yellow -> orange -> brick red

Higher concentration the further colour change along that spectrum

61
Q

What is a more accurate way of looking at colour change for identifying the concentrations of reducing sugar is present after the benedicts test?

A

Filter solution and weigh precipitate

62
Q

What could it mean if the result of the Benedict’s test is negative?

A

There might still be a non-reducing sugar present

63
Q

If the result of the Benedict’s test is negative, what further test could you do to test for non-reducing sugars?

A

Add dilute hydrochloric acid.

Heat and water bath.

Neutralise with sodium hydrogen carbonate.

Carry out Benedict’s test

Positive = same results as benedicts (brick red)

64
Q

What are we essentially doing when we need to test for non reducing sugars ?

A

Testing with benedicts and seeing there is no reducing sugar

Breakdown non-reducing sugar into monosaccharides

So if benedicts test positive we know we did break the disaccharide down and it was originally a non reducing sugar

65
Q

When testing for non reducing sugars what does adding HCL do?

A

Hydrolyses the glycosidic bond to form monosaccharides

66
Q

What are the monomers of proteins?

A

Amino acids

67
Q

What is formed when two amino acid is joined together?

A

A dipeptide

68
Q

What is a polypeptide

A

A change of multiple amino acid is joined by peptide bonds

69
Q

What are proteins made up of?

A

One or more polypeptide chains.

70
Q

Which three groups does an amino acid have?

A

The carboxyl group.

An amine group.

R group (also known as a variable group)

71
Q

How do you amino acids differ?

A

By the R group

72
Q

Which amino acid has a H for it’s R group?

A

Glycine

73
Q

How are peptide bonds formed?

A

Condensation reaction between two amino acids releasing a molecule of water

74
Q

Explain according to bonds how a peptide bond forms

A

Imagine two amino acids side by side

The OH from one and the H from another form water

Leaving:

 O   H
 ||     I —-C—N—
75
Q

Draw a peptide bond

A

O H
|| I
—-C—N—

76
Q

Describe the primary structure of a protein

A

Unique sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain

Peptide

77
Q

Describe the secondary structure of a protein

A

Polypeptide chain folds into alpha helices or beta pleated sheets

Hydrogen bonds form between amino acids

Peptide
Hydrogen

78
Q

Describe the tertiary structure of a protein

A

Polypeptide chain coils and folds further.

Peptide
Hydrogen
Ionic
London
Disulphide bridges
79
Q

In a tertiary structure protein where do the disulphide bridges form?

A

Whenever two molecules of amino acid cysteine come close together – sulfur atom in one cysteine bonds to sulfur atom in the other

80
Q

Describe the Quaternary structure of proteins

A

More than one polypeptide chain

81
Q

Give three examples of Quaternary structure of proteins

A

Haemoglobin.

Insulin.

Collagen.

82
Q

What are the four types of our groups that amino acids can have?

A

Polar and on charge

Polar and positively charged

Paula and negatively charged

Nonpolar and hydrophobic

83
Q

Name for functions of proteins

A

Enzymes

Antibodies

Transport proteins

Structural proteins

84
Q

When the R group changes …

A

Bonds will form in different places

85
Q

What causes channel proteins to form a channel?

A

They contain hydrophobic and hydrophilic amino acids

86
Q

Explain the test and results for proteins

A

How to sodium hydroxide solution (test solution needs to be made alkali)

Add copper to sulphate solution

Positive = solution turns purple negative = solution stays blue

87
Q

When is substrate fits into an enzymes active site, what is formed?

A

An enzyme substrate complex

88
Q

What about an enzyme substrate complex lowers activation energy for a reaction?

A

1) If two substrates need to be joined together, being attached to the enzyme has them closer together reducing any repulsion so the molecules bond more easily and less energy is required
2) If an enzyme is catalysing a breakdown reaction fitting the substrate into the active site puts strain on the bonds in the substrate so the substrate breaks more easily requires less energy

89
Q

Describe features of the lock and key theory

A

Active site doesn’t change shape, it’s rigid

90
Q

What does the locking key theory rely on?

A

And the substrate entering the active site of the enzyme at exactly the correct orientation

91
Q

Describe the induced fit theory

A

The substrate does not have to be complimentary to the active site of the enzyme

The substrate binds to the active site and the active site changes shape to form an enzyme substrate complex

As the active site of the enzyme binds around the substrate it puts pressure on the substrate, distorting its bonds (hydrogen and ionic)

The substrate becomes less stable which reduces its activation energy

Substrate is released sometimes broken up and enzyme returns to its original shape to catalyse more reactions

92
Q

What is a transition states? (Enzymes)

A

The least stable state of the substrate when it contains the most energy

93
Q

Explain three ways that enzyme properties relate to their tertiary structure

A

Each enzyme has a different tertiary structure and so a different shaped active site. If the substrate it’s not complimentary to the active site, and enzyme substrate does not form

The tertiary structure of an enzyme can be altered by changes in pH or temperature

The primary structure of the enzyme is determined by gene if there is a mutation in the chain it could change the tertiary structure of the enzyme produced

94
Q

What do enzymes do?

A

Actors biological catalysts

Lower activation energy

Provide an alternate route for the reaction

95
Q

Describe the structure of triglycerides

A

One glycerol

Three fatty acids

96
Q

What bond joins a glycerol molecule to a fatty acid in a triglyceride?

A

An ester bond

97
Q

What makes lipids insoluble in water?

A

The fatty acid tales are hydrophobic

98
Q

How does an Ester bond form?

A

A condensation reaction between a fatty acid and glycerol molecule where a molecule of water is released

99
Q

How many condensation reactions must occur for a triglyceride to form?

A

Three because three ester bonds into form to join three fatty acids to the glycerol molecule

100
Q

Explain where the ester bond between a fatty acid and glycerol molecule forms

A

Between the OH on the glycerol and the OH on the fatty acid

Leaving the O from the glycerol

101
Q

Draw the basic structure of a fatty acid

A

O
II
OH-C-R

Carboxylic acid ??

The R group is the tail and the OH is what forms water along with the H from the glycerol

102
Q

Describe saturated fatty acids

A

Don’t have any double bonds between the carbon atoms in the fatty acid tail

103
Q

Describe unsaturated fatty acid

A

Have at least one double bond between carbon atoms in the fatty acid tail

104
Q

Describe the structure of a phospholipid

A

One glycerol

Too fatty acid’s

One phosphate group

105
Q

Describe which parts of a phospholipid are hydrophobic and hydrophilic

A

Hydrophilic phosphate head

Hydrophobic fatty acid tails

106
Q

Describe the emulsion test and result for lipids

A

Shake test substance with ethanol until it dissolves

Poor solution into water

Positive result = milky emulsion

107
Q

What is the main function of triglycerides?

A

Energy storage molecules

108
Q

What is the main function of phospholipids

A

Make up the bilayer of cell membranes

109
Q

How is the structure of triglycerides related to their function as energy storage molecules

A

The long hydrocarbon tells of the fatty acids contain chemical energy which can be released one broken down

Triglycerides are insoluble so do not affect water potential and osmosis in the cell. They form insoluble droplets as the hydrophobic fatty acid tales face inwards and the hydrophilic heads face outwards

110
Q

Explain how the structure of phospholipids is related to their function in the bilayer of the cell membrane

A

The hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails mean that they form a double layer with their heads facing out towards water on either side

This also means the centre of the boiler is hydrophobic so it prevents water soluble substances from passing through the membrane which acts as a barrier to the substances

111
Q

What is one of the main functions of RNA?

A

Transfer genetic information from the DNA to the ribosomes

112
Q

What is the main function of DNA?

A

Store genetic information

113
Q

What is a nucleotide made up of?

A

Pentose sugar

Nitrogen containing organic base

Phosphate

114
Q

What are the monomers of DNA and RNA?

A

Nucleotides

115
Q

What is the pentose sugar in a DNA nucleotide called?

A

Deoxyribose sugar

116
Q

What is the pentose sugar in RNA nucleotides called?

A

ribose sugar

117
Q

What are the four possible bases in a DNA nucleotide?

A

Adenine

Thymine

Guanine

cytosine

118
Q

What are the four possible bases in a RNA nucleotides?

A

Adenine

Uracil

Cytosine

Guanine

119
Q

What are the polymers of DNA and RNA?

A

Nucleotides

120
Q

Explain how phosphodiester bond forms

A

Condensation reaction between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the sugar of another nucleotide releasing a water molecule

121
Q

How are two DNA polynucleotide strands joined together?

A

Hydrogen bonds between complimentary base pairs

122
Q

How many hydrogen bonds form between adenine and thymine?

A

Two hydrogen bonds

123
Q

How many hydrogen bonds form between guanine and cytosine?

A

Three

124
Q

The two polynucleotide strands of DNA are said to be…

A

Anti parallel

125
Q

Which bases are purine and which are pyrimidine?

A

Purine - adenine and guanine

Pyrimidine - thymine and cytosine

126
Q

What is a purine base?

A

To carbon nitrogen ring bases

127
Q

What is a pyramidine base?

A

One carbon nitrogen ring bases

128
Q

Which scientists determined to the structure of DNA and when?

A

Watson and Crick

1953

129
Q

Which scientists validated the theory of semiconservative DNA replication which was created by Watson and Crick, and when?

A

Meselson and Stahl

After 1953..?

130
Q

Why are DNA strands antiparallel?

A

DNA polymerase can only catalyse adding a phosphate to the third carbon on the ribose sugar of the next nucleotide

131
Q

Why is DNA double-stranded?

A

It is more stable and less reactive

It provides a template for repair

132
Q

Why is RNA single-stranded?

A

Requires less space

consumes less energy to replicate and translate into proteins

133
Q

Explain how semiconservative replication of DNA occurs (4)

A

Helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds between complimentary base pairs, unwinding the double helix

Each original single strand acts as a template for a new strand. Complimentary base pairing occurs as free-floating DNA nucleotides are attracted to the complimentary exposed bases on each original template strand.

Condensation reactions join the nucleotides of the new strands by phosphodiester bonds. This is catalysed by DNA polymerase. Hydrogen bonds form between the bases of the new and original strand

Each DNA molecule contains one strand from the original DNA molecule and one new strand

134
Q

Explain how DNA polymerase works.

A

DNA polymerase can only work in the 3’ —> 5’ direction due to its specific active site.

It produces a continuous Strand (the leading strand) and they discontinue a strand (the lagging strand)

Lagging strand is replicated in Okazaki fragments which are stuck together by DNA ligase

135
Q

Why are DNA strands antiparallel?

A

DNA polymerase can only catalyse adding a phosphate to the third carbon on the ribose sugar of the next nucleotide

136
Q

Why is DNA double-stranded?

A

It is more stable and less reactive

It provides a template for repair

137
Q

Why is RNA single-stranded?

A

Requires less space

consumes less energy to replicate and translate into proteins

138
Q

Explain how semiconservative replication of DNA occurs (4)

A

Helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds between complimentary base pairs, unwinding the double helix

Each original single strand acts as a template for a new strand. Complimentary base pairing occurs as free-floating DNA nucleotides are attracted to the complimentary exposed bases on each original template strand.

Condensation reactions join the nucleotides of the new strands by phosphodiester bonds. This is catalysed by DNA polymerase. Hydrogen bonds form between the bases of the new and original strand

Each DNA molecule contains one strand from the original DNA molecule and one new strand

139
Q

Explain how DNA polymerase works.

A

DNA polymerase can only work in the 3’ —> 5’ direction due to its specific active site.

It produces a continuous Strand (the leading strand) and they discontinue a strand (the lagging strand)

Lagging strand is replicated in Okazaki fragments which are stuck together by DNA ligase

140
Q

Define semiconservative replication

A

Produces two copies of DNA, each one contains one original Strand and one new strand

141
Q

Define Conservative replication

A

Produces a copy of DNA composed of two entirely new strands, leaving the original two DNA strands together

142
Q

Explain how Meselson and Stahl validated the theory of semiconservative replication for DNA.

A

They grew bacterial cells in media containing different nitrogen isotopes. (One batch of bacteria grew in media containing N15, heavy isotope. Other batch of bacteria grew in media containing N14, light isotope)

Nitrogen is used in the creation of DNA because it makes up the nitrogenous bases. Therefore DNA made from heavy nitrogen isotope would have an overall heavy density but DNA made from the light nitrogen isotope would have an overall lighter density.

Bacterial DNA made from the heavy nitrogen isotope was put into an environment with light nitrogen isotopes present and DNA replication occurred.

The DNA molecules which were produced had half of the nitrogen heavy isotope and half of the light nitrogen isotope so an overall medium density.

This suggested that they were made from the original heavy nitrogen strand and the new nitrogen light isotope strand. This is evidence for semiconservative replication.

(Heavy made, light made, bacteria with just heavy DNA out into environments with light N floating around, final DNA was medium density bf contained heavy N and light N)

143
Q

How would the strips across the centrifuge tube appear if conservative DNA replication was occurring?

A

Conservative replication starting with DNA made from heavy N isotope in environment with free light N isotopes

One band of DNA across top for light N
One band of DNA across bottom for heavy N

144
Q

How would the strips across the centrifuge tube appear if semi conservative DNA replication was occurring?

A

DNA strand in middle of centrifuge tube because medium density as made up of both heavy and light N isotopes

AQA A level Biology (36 decks)

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