Biological molecules Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the test for protein

A

Biuret reagent is added, no heating is required, a purple colour develops if there is protein

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2
Q

What is the test for lipids

A

Emulsion test, the substance is shaken with ethanol. The ethanol is then poured into a test tube containing water. If there is lipid then the water turns cloudy.

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3
Q

What is the test for starch

A

Add Iodine to the substance, a blue-black colour is produced when there is starch

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4
Q

What is the test for reducing sugars

A

Add benedicts solution to the substance which is heated in a water bath. If a reducing sugar is present it will turn brick red.

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5
Q

What is the test for non-reducing sugars

A

Heat the sugar solution with hydrochloric acid. You need to add an alkali such as sodium hydroxide. Add benedicts solution and gently heat. If the solution goes red now but not in the initial step then there is a non-reducing sugar is present.

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6
Q

How to use colour standards to estimate the concentration of reducing sugars

A

The intensity of the red colour in the benedicts test can be used to estimate the concentration of the reducing sugars. You can estimate the concentration using colour standards made by comparing the colour of the unknown concentration against the colours obtained in tests done with reducing sugar solutions of known concentrations.

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7
Q

Monomer

A

A relatively simple molecule used as a building block to make polymers.

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8
Q

Polymer

A

A giant molecule made from monomers joined together in a chain.

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9
Q

Macromolecule

A

A large biological molecule such as a protein, polysaccharide or nucleic acid

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10
Q

Monosaccharide

A

They are sugars with the general formula (CH2O)n and consist of a single sugar unit

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11
Q

How are monosaccharides classified

A

They are classified according to how many carbon atoms are in each molecule. There are trioses (3C), pentoses (5C) and hexoses (6C)

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12
Q

Disaccharide

A

A sugar molecule consisting of two monosaccharides joined together by a glyosidic bond

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13
Q

Polysaccharide

A

A polymer whose subunits are monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic bonds.

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14
Q

How are disaccharides formed

A

Two monosaccharides are joined by a condensation reaction to form a glycosidic bond. An -OH is lost from one sugar and H from another -OH group. If two alpha monosaccharides are joined up its with their 1 and 4th carbons. It is possible for any two possible -OH groups to line up but only a few actually exist in nature. Many thousands monosaccharides can join up into polysaccharide as each successive monosaccharide is joined by a glycosidic bond.

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15
Q

Hydrolyses

A

The breakage of glycosidic bonds in polysaccharides and saccharides by hydrolyses. In reducing sugars this occurs.

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16
Q

Why are polysaccharides used in storage

A

They are compact, inert and insoluble.

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17
Q

Starch

A

Made of Amylose and Amylopectin. Amylose is made by condensation between alpha glucose molecules, they are linked between 1 and 4 of successive glucose units. The chains coil into a helical structure making the final molecule more compact. Amylopectin is also made of many 1,4 linked alpha glucose molecules, but the chains are shorter then in amylose and branch out to the sides. Starch is never found in animal cells .

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18
Q

Glycogen

A

Like amylopectin it is made of chains of 1,4 linked alpha glucose with 1,6 linkage forming branches. It is more branched then amylopectin, these branches can be broken down easily which is useful when there is a sudden need for energy. It is less compact then starch.

19
Q

Cellulose

A

Mechanically strong. Successive beta glucose molecules are linked at 180 degrees to each other. The hydrogen atoms of the -OH group are weakly attracted to oxygen atoms in the same cellulose molecule and also to oxygen of -OH groups in neighbouring molecules. These hydrogen bonds are collectively very strong. The bundles form microfibrils which are in turn held together in bundles called fibres by hydrogen bonding. A cell wall has several layers of fibres running in different directions to increase strength. Strength means that it doesn’t burst when osmosis happens.

20
Q

Triglycerides

A

Forms when glycerol reacts with 3 fatty acid tails in a condensation reaction to form a ester. They are insoluble in water as the fatty acid tail is not polar.

21
Q

Roles of triglycerides

A

An excellent energy reserve as it is rich in carbon hydrogen bonds so will yield more energy on oxidation. It is also a metabolic source of water, when oxidised CO2 and water is produces which is useful for animals which live in dry climates.

22
Q

Phospholipids

A

When one of the fatty acid tails in triglycerides is replaced by a phosphate group. The head containing the phosphate group is hydrophilic whereas the two fatty acid tails are hydrophobic. It can form a membrane around a cell where the hydrophilic head lies in the watery surroundings on the outside of the membrane and the hydrophobic tails form a layer which is impermeable to hydrophilic substances

23
Q

Amino acid

A

H R =O
N—C—C
H H OH

They have a central carbon which is bonded to an amine group -NH2 and a carboxylic acid group -COOH, a hydrogen is also bonded to the central carbon. There is also an R group bonded to the central carbon which varies in each amino acid.

24
Q

Making a peptide bond

A

Two amino acids join together, one looses an -OH from its carboxylic acid whilst the other looses a hydrogen from its amine group. It is a condensation reaction, the carbon of the carboxylic acid group bonds to the nitrogen. This forms a dipeptide, a polypeptide can be made and any number of amino acids can join.

25
Q

Breaking a peptide bond

A

Polypeptides can be broken down into amino acids by breaking the peptide bond. This is a hydrolysis reaction involving the addition by water. It happens naturally in the stomach and small intestine.

26
Q

Primary structure

A

The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide or protein

27
Q

Secondary structure

A

The structure of a protein molecules resulting from the regular coiling or folding of the chain of amino acids e.g. alpha helix or beta pleated sheet. Caused by the hydrogen bonding between the amine and carboxylic acid groups

28
Q

Tertiary structure

A

The compact structure of a protein molecule resulting from the three dimensional coiling of the already folded chain of amino acids.

29
Q

Quaternary structure

A

The three dimensional arrangement of two or more polypeptides, or of a polypeptide and a non protein component such as a haem group.

30
Q

Alpha helix

A

This is due to the hydrogen bonding between the oxygen of the CO group of one amino acid and the hydrogen of the NH group of the amino acid 4 places ahead of it.

31
Q

Beta pleated sheet

A

Sometimes the hydrogen bonding results in a much looser straighter shape then the alpha helix.

32
Q

Hydrogen bonding in secondary structure

A

Are strong enough to hold the alpha helix and beta pleated sheet in place but are broken at high temperatures and ph change.

33
Q

How hydrogen bonding keeps folded proteins in their precise shape

A

They form between strongly polar groups i.e. NH, CO and OH groups

34
Q

How disulfide bonds keep folded proteins in their precise shape

A

Form between cysteine molecules. They are strong covalent bonds. They can be broken by reducing agents

35
Q

How ionic bonding keeps folded proteins in their precise shape

A

Form between ionised amine NH3+ groups and ionised carboxylic acid COO- groups. They can be broken by ph change

36
Q

How weak hydrophobic interactions keep folded proteins in their precise shape

A

Occur between non-polar R groups. Although the interactions are weak, the groups tend to stay together because they are repelled by the watery environment around them.

37
Q

Globular proteins

A

A protein where the molecule curls up so that their non-polar hydrophobic R groups point into the centre of the molecule away from the watery surroundings. The polar, hydrophilic R groups remain on the outside of the molecule. Normally soluble, many have roles in metabolic reactions such as enzymes.

38
Q

Fibrous proteins

A

Form long strands, not normally soluble in water and tend to have structural roles. For example collagen or keratin.

39
Q

Haemoglobin - a globular protein

A

It is made of four polypeptide chains so has a quaternary structure. There are two chains of beta globin and two chains of alpha globin. The hydrophobic R groups point inwards and the hydrophilic R groups point outwards. This is important in maintaining solubility. Each polypeptide chain contains a haem group. Each haem group contains an iron atom, one oxygen molecule O2 can bind with each Iron atom. A complete haemoglobin molecule with 4 haem groups can carry 4 oxygen molecules.

40
Q

Collagen - a fibrous protein

A

An insoluble structural protein. It has 3 polypeptide chains, each in the shape of a helix. They are wound around each other to form a tripe helix. The three strands are held together by hydrogen and some covalent bonds. Every third amino acid in a polypeptide is glycine, the smallest amino acid. Its small size allows the strands to lie close together and form a tight coil. These triple helixes lie side by side and link to each other by covalent cross links these form fibrils. The ends are staggered so that there is no weak spot. The fibrils lie alongside each other forming fibres. Very flexible. They line up according to the forces they must withstand.

41
Q

Specific heat capacity

A

How much energy is taken to heat something up

42
Q

Latent heat of vaporisation

A

How much energy is needed to evaporate a substance

43
Q

Water has a high specific heat capacity and latent heat of vaporisation

A

This is due to the many strong hydrogen bonds which are a type of intermolecular force which make water molecules difficult to separate. This means temperatures in cells rarely changes so which is helpful as the organelle don’t get harmed. Large bodies of water rarely change temperature meaning the organisms inside it don’t get harmed.

44
Q

Water is a good solvent

A

Can dissolve ions and polar molecules because different sides of the water molecule are slightly charged. The water molecule collects around the ions and separate them. Lipids are not soluble because they are not polar so the water molecule attracts other water molecules instead. This allows for separation.