biological molecules Flashcards
1
Q
adhesion
A
property of water
creates attraction between water and surfaces they are in contact with
2
Q
amino acid
A
monomers containing:
an amino acid (NH2)
a carboxyl group (COOH)
a variable R group
makes up proteins
3
Q
amylopectin
A
branched polysaccharide
made up of alpha glucose monomers
joined by a 1-6 glycosidic bonds
makes up starch (with amylose)
4
Q
amylose
A
unbranched polysaccharide
made up alpha glucose monomers
joined by a 1-4 glycosidic bonds
makes up starch (with amylopectin)
5
Q
anions
A
ion with negative charge
6
Q
benedicts test
A
biochemical test
used to detect reducing sugar
distinguish concentrations
7
Q
biuret test
A
biochemical test
produces purple colour when proteins is presence
8
Q
cations
A
ions with a positive charge
9
Q
cellulose
A
linear polysaccharide
main component of the cell wall in plants
made up of many beta glucose molecules
joined by b 1-4 glycosidic bonds
10
Q
cohesion
A
property of water molecules
attraction between them
causes them to stick together
11
Q
collagen
A
fibourous protein
provides strength
makes up connective tissues
12
Q
confocal microscopy
A
uses lasers to scan a specimen point by point to produce an image
13
Q
cytoskeleton
A
mesh of protein fibres found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells
14
Q
cytoskeleton function
A
used for structrual support and intracellular transport
15
Q
golgi apparatus function
A
involved in the modification and packaging of proteins
16
Q
lysosomes
A
membrane bound vesicles in the cytoplasm
contain lysozome (hydrolic enzyme)
17
Q
plasma membrane
A
semipermeable lipid bilayer studded with proteins
18
Q
RER function
A
involved in the synthesis and packaging of proteins
19
Q
SER function
A
involved in the process of lipid synthesis
20
Q
what is an amino acid
A
building blocks of proteins
21
Q
what makes up starch
A
amylose and amylopectin
22
Q
condensation reaction
A
reaction that joins two molecules together with the formation of chemical bond involving the elimination of a molecule of water
23
Q
conjugated protein
A
protein with prosthetic group bound to it
24
Q
elastin
A
fibrous protein that allows tissues and structures to return to their original shape
25
fibrous protein
class of long chain proteins
generally insoluble in water
typically have structural roles
26
globular protein
class of spherical shaped proteins generally water soluble
typically have metabolic roles
27
glucose
hexose monosaccharide
main respiratory substrate in eukaryotes
28
glycogen
highly branched polysaccharide
used as main energy storage molecule in animals
made up of alpha glucose monomers
joined by alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds
29
haemoglobin
type of conjugated globular protein
used to transport oxygen
made up of 4 polypeptide chains
each containing haem prosthetic group
30
hexose monosaccharide
simple sugar
contains 6 carbon atoms
31
hydrogen bond
weak bond
formed between electro positive hydrogen and electro negative atom
32
hydrolysis
breaking chemical bond
between two molecules
involving the use of a water molecule
33
insulin
globular protein hormone
made in the pancreas in response to detection of high glucose levels in the blood
34
iodine test
biochemical test
produces a blue/black colour when starch is present
35
keratin
type of fibrous protein
provides strength to hair and nails
36
lactose
disaccharide
made of a glucose and galactose
joined by glycosidic bond
37
lipid emulsion test
biochemical test
produces a cloudy emulsion when lipid is present
38
maltose
disaccharide
made of two molecules of glucose
glycosidic bond
39
monomer
individual unit
can be bonded to other identical monomers to make a polymer
40
pentose monosaccharide
simple sugar
contains 5 carbon atoms
41
phospholipid
type of amphipathic lipid
made from glycerol
bonded to two fatty acid molecules and a phosphate group
42
polymer
molecule made from many repeating monomer
43
primary structure
the individual sequence of amino acids in protein
44
quaternary structure
a structure only applicable to proteins with multiple polypeptide chains
45
ribose
a pentose monosaccharide which composes the backbone of RNA
46
saturated fatty acid
type of fatty acid molecule
contains only single bonds between carbon atoms
47
secondary structure
local interactions of the amino acids in the polypeptide chain
48
solvent
a liquid that solutes can dissolve in to form a solution
49
starch
polysaccharide
used for energy storage in plants
made up of alpha glucose joined together
forms of amylose and amylopectin
50
sucrose
dissaccharide
glucose and fructose joined by a glycosidic bond
51
tertiary structure
the whole protein folds to make a 3D structure
52
triglyceride
type of liquid formed from a molecule of glycerol
joined by ester bonds to 3 fatty acid molecules
53
unsaturated fatty acid
fatty acid molecule
containing at least one double bond in the carbon chain
54
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
a nucleotide
consisting of a molecule or ribose joined to the nitrogenous base adenine and 3 phosphate groups
55
degenerate (genetic code)
some amino acids can be coded for by multiple different codons
56
what does DNA stand for
deoxyribonucleic acid
57
DNA
double stranded polynucleotide
contains genetic material of an organism
made up of deoxyribonucleotide monomers
joined together by phosphodiester bonds
58
DNA nucleotide
monomer that makes up DNA
consists of deoxyribose, a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group
59
DNA polymerase
enzyme that catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides during the synthesis of a new DNA strand
60
RNA polymerase
enzyme that catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides during the synthesis of a new RNA strand
61
helicase
an enzyme that catalyses the unwinding and unzipping of DNA in many processes like replication and transcription
62
messenger RNA (mRNA)
type of RNA that carries genetic information from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes for translation
63
non-overlapping (genetic code)
each base is only part of one codon and that each codon is read one at a time in order
64
nucleotide
monomer from which nucleic acids are made that consists of a pentose sugar, nitrogenous base and phosphate group
65
phosphodiester bond
type of bond that joins nucleotides together to create polynucleotides
66
purines
class of nitrogenous bases which are made up of two rings
67
purine examples
adenine
guanine
68
pyrimidines
class of nitrogenous bases which are made up of a single ring
69
pyrimidines examples
cytosine
thymine
uracil
70
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
type of RNA that makes up ribosomes
71
semi-conservative replication
replication of DNA to produce two new molecules which both contain one new strand and one old strand from the original DNA molecule
72
transcription
process of synthesising a new mRNA strand from a molecule of DNA
73
transfer RNA (tRNA)
type of RNA
has three hairpin loops, an anticodon for attachment to the mRNA codon and amino acid binding site
used to carry amino acids to the ribosome
74
translation
process of protein synthesis where complementary tRNAs carrying amino acids are brought to each codon in an mRNA molecule as it moves through a ribosome
75
triplet (genetic code)
DNA is grouped into 3 base long codons that are read together and code for an amino acid
76
universal (genetic code)
the same codons code for the same amino acids in all organisms
77
activation energy
amount of energy needed for a reaction to happen
78
active site
a specific region on an enzyme where the substrate binds and the reaction takes place
79
amylase
enzyme that catalyses the extracellular breakdown of starch
80
catalase
an enzyme that catalyses the intracellular breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and water
81
coenzyme
a type of cofactor that is bound loosely to an enzyme with weak interactions
82
cofactors
a non protein molecule that is needed for the effective functioning of an enzyme
83
competitive inhibitor
a molecule which binds to the active site of an enzyme and prevents the substrate from binding
84
cyanide (CN-)
a metabolic poison
acts as an irreversible inhibitor of cytochrome oxidase
so prevents respiration
85
end product inhibition
product of an enzyme controlled reaction can bind to the enzyme and prevent it from working
86
enzyme
biological catalyst used to speed up the rate of biochemical reactions without being used up or permanently altered
87
enzyme-product complex
temporary complex
formed after the enzyme has catalysed the reaction but before the products have left the active site of the enzyme
88
extra cellular reaction
reaction that occurs outside of cells
89
inactive precursor
inactive form of an enzyme that cannot carry out its function until it is activated
90
induced fit hypothesis
model of enzyme action
describes how once a specific substrate binds to the active site, the enzyme undergoes subtle conformational changes to fit the substrate better
91
intracellular reaction
a reaction that occurs within cells
92
lock and key hypothesis
a model of enzyme action that describes how the enzyme will only fit a substrate that has the correct complementary shape to the active site
93
metabolism
sum of all the chemical reactions taking place in a cell
94
non competitive inhibitor
inhibitor which binds to a different part of an enzyme known as the allosteric site and prevents the enzyme from functioning
95
prosthetic group
type of cofactor that is bound tightly to an enzyme with strong interactions
96
substrate specificity
the ability of an enzyme to catalyse only a specific reaction or set of reactions which have substrates complementary to the active site of the enzyme
97
temperature coefficient (Q10)
a method of calculating an increase in reaction rate after a 10C temperature increase
98
temperature coefficient equation
Q10 = R2 / R1
99
trypsin
enzyme that catalyses the extracellular breakdown of proteins
100
active transport
the active movement of substances from a low concentration to a higher concentration (up a conc gradient)
with the use of energy in the form of ATP
101
amphipathic
a molecule with both hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts
102
cell lysis
the bursting of a cell (particularly after the uptake of too much water)
103
cholesterol
mostly hydrophobic molecule
sits in the hydrophobic portion of the membrane
regulates membrane fluidity
104
crenation
the shrinking of a cell when placed in hypertonic solution (after too much water moves out by osmosis)
105
endocytosis
the bulk uptake of substances into a cell
by invagination of the membrane to form a vesicle trapping the substances inside the cell
with the use of energy in the form of ATP
106
exocytosis
the bulk transport of substances out of a cell
using a vesicle that fuses with the plasma membrane
using energy in the form of ATP
107
facilitated diffusion
the net movement of substances from a high concentration to a lower concentration
through transport proteins without the use of energy
108
fluid mosaic model
a model that describes membrane structure as a sea of mobile phospholipids studded with various proteins
109
hydrophilic
a molecule which is attracted to water
110
hydrophobic
a molecule which repels water
111
integral membrane protein
a type of protein bound to the membrane with strong interactions
112
osmosis
the net movement of water molecules across a partially permeable membrane
from a region of high water potential to a region of lower water potential
without the use of energy
113
peripheral membrane protein
a type of protein that is weakly bound to the surface of the membrane
114
phagocytosis
the ingestion of solid material by phagocytic cells
115
phospholipid
type of lipid formed by the condensation of one molecule of glycerol, two molecules of fatty acid and a phosphate group
116
pinocytosis
the bulk uptake of liquids into the cell using energy in the form of ATP
117
plasmolysis
the effect produced by placing plant cells in a hypertonic solution
causing the cell to shrivel from water loss
resulting in the membrane pulling away from the rigid cell wall
118
simple diffusion
the spreading out of substances from a high concentration to a lower concentration
without the use of energy
119
turgid
describes a cell that is swollen due to large amounts of fluid uptake
120
water potential
a measure of the tendency of water molecules to move from one area to another measured in kilopascals (kPa)
121
acrosome
an organelle found in the head of the sperm cells which is specialised to digest the outer coating of an egg cell during fertilisation
122
anaphase 1
third stage in meiosis
where the chromosomes that make up the bivalent are pulled apart to the poles of the cell by the spindle fibres
123
anaphase 2
7th stage of meiosis
where the chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell
124
anucleate
type of cell which doesn't have a nucleus
125
asexual reproduction
the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent through the process of mitosis
126
bivalent
a pair of homologous chromosomes
127
ciliated epithelium
type of epithelium
has many fine protrusions (cilia) which are specialised for sweeping dirt and debris out of the body
128
crossing over
the exchange of genetic material between two chromosomes in a bivalent
129
cytokinesis
the division of the cytoplasm at the end of mitosis to produce 2 new daughter cells
130
differentiation
the process where a cell develops certain features so that it is specialised to carry out a certain function
131
diploid
cells with two copies of each chromosome
132
erythrocyte
an anucleate cell specialised to carry oxygen from the lungs around the body
red blood cell
133
G1 (gap 1) checkpoint
first checkpoint in the cell cycle
occurs just before the end of G1 phase
commits the cell to division under favourable conditions
134
G1 (gap 1) phase
first growth phase in interphase
where the cell synthesises proteins and RNA
duplicates its organelles and increases in size before DNA replication in S phase
135
G2 (gap 2) checkpoint
the second checkpoint in the cell cycle
occurs at the end of G2 phase
checks that the DNA was correctly replicated during S phase before the cell enters mitosis
136
G2 (gap 2) phase
the second growth phase of interphase
where the cell continues to increase in size and synthesise biomolecules
137
gametes
sex cells that have haploid nucleus and are produced through meiosis
138
gene loci
the location of a gene on a chromosome
139
guard cells
type of cell usually found in pairs
specialised to control the opening and closing of stomata
140
haploid
cells with only one copy of each chromosome
141
homologous chromosomes
two chromosomes with similar gene loci but different alleles, one inherited from each parent
142
independent assortment
a source of variation in meiosis where the bivalent chromosomes can line up either way around the metaphase plate
143
interphase
largest part of the cell cycle where cells spend most of their time growing, synthesising biomolecules and preparing for mitosis
144
M (metaphase) checkpoint
the checkpoint occuring at the end of metaphase during mitosis which ensures all of the chromosomes have correctly attached to the spindle fibres and aligned at the metaphase plate
145
meiosis
a type of cell division used to produce gametes that produces four genetically different haploid daughter cells from one parent cell
146
meristematic tissue
a type of plant tissue which contains stem cells and is usually found in the growing regions of the plant
147
metaphase
the second stage of meiosis where the chromosomes attach to the spindle fibres and align in the centre of the cell along the metaphase plate
148
metaphase 1
second stage of meiosis where the bivalent chromosomes align along the metaphase plate and independent assortment occurs
149
metaphase 2
the sixth stage of meiosis where the recombinant chromosomes align on the metaphase plate
150
mitosis
the division of a cell to produce two genetically identical daughter cells
151
multipotent
type of stem cell
has the ability to differentiate into any cell type within a certain tissue in the body
152
neutrophil
type of white blood cell
has a multi lobed nucleus
specialise to engulf and destroy pathogens
153
organ
group of specialised tissues working together to carry out a specific function
154
organ system
group of specialised organs working together to carry out a specific function
155
palisade cell
type of cell found in the leaves of plants which contains many chloroplasts and is specialised to carry out photosynthesis
156
phloem
a tissue found in plants which is specialised for the transport of assimilates from their site of production to different parts of the plant where they are needed
157
pluripotent stem cell
a type of stem cell which has the ability to differentiate into any cell type in the body
158
prophase
first stage in mitosis
the nuclear envelope breaks down
the centrosomes move to opposite poles of the cell
the mitotic spindle begins to form
chromosomes condense
159
prophase 1
first stage in meiosis
the nuclear envelope breaks down
the spindle fibres form
the chromosomes condense and form bivalents
stage of meiosis where crossing over occurs
160
prophase 2
fifth stage of meiosis
nuclear envelope breaks down
the spindle fibres form
the chromosomes condense
161
recombinant chromosomes
the chromosomes produced by the crossing over and exchange of genes during metaphase 1
162
root hair cell
type of cell that is found in the roots of cells which has a large surface area
is specialised for the uptake of water and ions from the soil
163
S (synthesis) phase
second phase in the cell cycle where the DNA in the cell is replicated
164
somatic cells
any cells that make up an organism
excluding sex cells
165
sperm cell
male gamete
contains long tail, an acrosome and lots of mitochondria
specialised to fertilise an egg cell
166
squamous epithelium
type of epithelium
only one cell thick
specialised for rapid diffusion
167
stem cell
type of undifferentiated cell which has the ability to divide many times and differentiate into many different cell types
168
stomata
small openings in the leaves or stem of a plant that can be opened or closed by guard cells in response to varying conditions
169
telophase
final stage of mitosis
new nuclear envelopes begin to form around the separated sets of chromosomes
170
telophase 1
fourth stage of meiosis
nuclear envelopes reform around the separated chromosomes and they uncoil
171
telophase 2
final stage in meisosis
nuclear envelopes reform around the separated chromatids and they uncoil
172
tissue
group of specialised cells working together to carry out a specific function
173
totipotent stem cell
type of stem cell which has the ability to differentiate into any type of cell in the body or in the placenta
174
