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AP Psychology > Biological Bases Vocab > Flashcards

Biological Bases Vocab Flashcards

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1
Q

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

ex: tells your body to react to pain

A

Neuron

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2
Q

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life support center

A

Cell body (soma- cells that aren’t reproductive)

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3
Q

a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

A

Dendrites

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4
Q

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

A

Axon

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5
Q

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

A

Myelin Sheath

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6
Q

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

A

Glial Cells (glia)

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7
Q

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

A

Action Potential

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8
Q

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

ex: if excitatory signals exceed the inhibitory signals by a minimum intensity/threshold, the combined signals trigger an action potential

A

Threshold

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9
Q

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

ex: (a refractory period takes about a fraction of the time it takes to blink) if you were on the phone and it took you a slower amount of time to react to a car in front of you

A

Refractory Period

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10
Q

a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full strength response) or not firing

ex: (it’s like a gun, neurons either fire or they don’t) distinguishing a gentle touch from a big hug

A

All-or-none Response

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11
Q

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron; the tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft

ex: how the intention to move our arm translates to actually moving our arm

A

Synapse

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12
Q

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons; when released by the sending neuron, these travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

ex: (they affect awareness, mood, and hunger) endorphins, dopamine, serotonin, etc

A

Neurotransmitters

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13
Q

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

ex: some antidepressant medications work by partially blocking the reuptake of mood-enhancing neurotransmitters

A

Reuptake

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14
Q

“morphine within”-natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

ex: chemicals produced doing pleasurable things such as exercise or laughing, but can also happen during pain

A

Endorphins

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15
Q

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action

ex: opiate drugs, heroine, morphine

A

Agonist

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16
Q

a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action

ex: Botulin, a poison that can form in improperly canned food, causes paralysis by blocking ACh release (also used for botox)

A

Antagonist

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17
Q

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

ex: touching a hot plate, reflectively pulling back your hand, sending pain signals to your brain

A

Nervous System

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18
Q

the brain and spinal cord

A

Central Nervous System (CNS)

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19
Q

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

ex: allows you to feel pain and other sensations

A

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

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20
Q

bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the CNS with the muscles, glands, and sense organs

ex: the optic nerve bundles a million axons into a single cable carrying the messages from the eye to the brain

A

Nerves

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21
Q

neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

ex: touching a stove, these are what fire and sends signals to the nervous system

A

Sensory (afferent) Neurons

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22
Q

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

ex: optical nerves

A

Motor (efferent) Neurons

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23
Q

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

ex: (our nervous system has a few million sensory neurons and a few million motor neurons, but it has billions and billions of these) golgi cell found in cerebellum

A

Interneurons

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24
Q

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles; also called the skeletal nervous system

ex: cranial nerves carry information from the brain to the head and neck region

A

Somatic Nervous System

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25
Q

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart); Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

ex: salivating, sweating, crying, secreting hormones

A

Autonomic Nervous System

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26
Q

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

ex: panic, anger, excitement, etc

A

Sympathetic Nervous System

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27
Q

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

ex: calms, conserves energy

A

Parasympathetic Nervous System

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28
Q

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus

ex: knee-jerk response

A

Reflex

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29
Q

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

ex: insulin, growth, function of reproductive organs, etc

A

Endocrine System

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30
Q

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues

ex: influence our interest in sex, food, and aggression

A

Hormones

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31
Q

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress

ex: regulate metabolism, immune system, blood pressure, response to stress, etc

A

Adrenal Glands

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32
Q

the endocrine system’s most influential gland; under the influence of the hypothalamus, this regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

ex: Oxytocin is released from this; enables contractions associated with birthing, milk flow during nursing, and orgasm

A

Pituitary Gland

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33
Q

a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive ___ scans (show brain function as well as structure)

ex: could show which brain areas are most active when people feel pain or rejection, listen to angry voices, think about scary things, feel happy, or become sexually excited

A

fMRI (functional MRI)

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34
Q

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

ex: if a cat’s brainstem is severed from the rest of the brain above it, the animal will still breathe and live- and even run, climb and groom; but, since it’s cut off from the brain’s higher regions, it won’t purposefully run or climb to get food

A

Brainstem

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35
Q

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

ex: if Jimmy was in a car crash that damaged this, the results could be fatal because it’s damaging his breathing and heartbeat

A

Medulla

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36
Q

the brain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

ex: receives information from all the senses except smell; routes info to higher brain regions that deal with seeing, hearing, tasting, and touching

A

Thalamus

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37
Q

a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal

ex: being able to watch television while writing an essay (multitasking) is all thanks to this

A

Reticular (“net-like”) Formation

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38
Q

the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

ex: when a soccer player masterfully controls the ball, you can thank this

A

Cerebellum

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39
Q

neural system (including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives; border between old and new brain

ex: regulates emotion, memory, and basic motives

A

Limbic System

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40
Q

two lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

ex: scientists removed this in an aggressive monkey, turning the normally ill-tempered animal super mellow

A

Amygdala

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41
Q

a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward

ex: eating, drinking, body temp

A

Hypothalamus

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42
Q

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events

ex: a human who loses this to surgery or injury also lose their ability to form new memories of facts and events

A

Hippocampus

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43
Q

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information processing center

ex: main thinking crown of your brain

A

Cerebral cortex

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44
Q

tissue destruction; naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

A

Lesion

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45
Q

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface

ex: waves are measured by electrodes placed on scalp; it’s like studying a car engine by listening to its hum

A

EEG (electroencephalogram)

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46
Q

a brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity

ex: cancels out other magnetic fields; participants sit underneath a head coil resembling a hair salon hairdryer

A

MEG (magnetoencephalography)

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47
Q

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure (also called a CAT scan)

ex: Sally has been having issues with her balance; this will show her which part of her brain has damage that could be causing that

A

CT (computed tomography) scan

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48
Q

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

ex: after a person receives temporarily radioactive glucose, this scan can track the gamma rays released by this “food for thought” as a task is performed

A

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

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49
Q

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue; show brain anatomy

ex: have revealed a larger-than-average neural area in the left hemisphere of musicians who display perfect pitch

A

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

50
Q

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead

ex: involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements

A

Frontal Lobes

51
Q

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear

ex: receives sensory input for touch and body position

A

Parietal Lobes

52
Q

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head

ex: includes areas that receive information from the visual fields (eyes)

A

Occipital Lobes

53
Q

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears

ex: includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

A

Temporal Lobes

54
Q

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

ex: scientists discovered stimulating parts of the frontal lobe in the left or right hemisphere caused movements of specific body parts on the opposite side of the body

A

Motor Cortex

55
Q

an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

ex: stimulate a point on the top of this band of tissue and a person may report being touched on the shoulder, this is due to your ___________; the more sensitive the body region, the larger the ___________ area devoted to it

A

Somatosensory Cortex

56
Q

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

ex: they are found in all four lobes, therefore if you had damage in your frontal cortex, you have great cake baking skills but the inability to plan ahead to begin baking a cake for a birthday party

A

Association Areas

57
Q

the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

ex: London’s taxi drivers must learn and remember 25,000 streets and their connections in 2-4 years; the end result being an enlarged hippocampus

A

Plasticity

58
Q

the formation of new neurons

ex: baby neurons have been found in the brains of adult humans; these neurons may then migrate elsewhere and form connections with neighboring neurons

A

Neurogenesis

59
Q

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

ex: severing this caused less seizures

A

Corpus Callosum

60
Q

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly the corpus callosum) connecting them

ex: patients are surprisingly normal; their personality and intellect are hardly affected

A

Split Brain

61
Q

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment

ex: offers a reproductive advantage; helps us act in our long term interest rather than short term pleasure

A

Consciousness

62
Q

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition

ex: perception, thinking, memory, and language

A

Cognitive Neuroscience

63
Q

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

ex: the high road is conscious and deliberate and the low road is unconscious and automatic

A

Dual Processing

64
Q

a condition in which a person can respond to visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

ex: a woman suffered brain damage, leaving her unable to recognize objects visually; yet she still acted as though she could

A

Blindsight

65
Q

the study of evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

ex: focuses mostly on what makes us so much alike as humans

A

Evolutionary Psychology

66
Q

the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

ex: 100 years ago there were dark and light moths in America; eventually, a new predatorial species was introduced that only ate light moths; the dark moths thrived and survived instead of being killed off

A

Natural Selection

67
Q

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

ex: Down Syndrome

A

Mutation

68
Q

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

ex: women may learn that sexual encounters with strangers can be dangerous, and that casual sex may not offer much pleasure

A

Social Script

69
Q

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment

ex: being awake and knowing what is going on is an example of being _____

A

Consciousness

70
Q

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

ex: helped alleviate headaches, asthma, and stress-related anxiety and skin disorders

A

Posthypnotic Suggestion

71
Q

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

ex: doodling while listening to a lecture or typing while having a conversation

A

Dissociation

72
Q

a periodic, natural loss of consciousness-as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

ex: may seem “dead to the world” but you’re not; you can roll off the bed and not fall off; you can distinguish your baby crying from the sound of a moving vehicle outside

A

Sleep

73
Q

our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24 hour cycle

ex: can be altered, depends on your usual awakening time and sleep time

A

Circadian Rhythm

74
Q

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur; also known as paradoxical sleep because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active

ex: when vivid dreams occur, deepest part of sleep

A

REM sleep

75
Q

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

ex: can be seen on an EEG

A

Alpha Waves

76
Q

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

A

NREM sleep

77
Q

false sensory experiences

ex: seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus (seeing something that isn’t real)

A

Hallucinations

78
Q

bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep

A

Hypnagogic Sensations

79
Q

the large, slow brain waves associated with the deep sleep of NREM-3

*opposite of alpha waves

A

Delta Waves

80
Q

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm; in response to light, it causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness

A

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

81
Q

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

ex: As Bob has gotten older, he has more trouble falling asleep. He generally overestimates how long it takes him to fall asleep and underestimates how long he has actually slept.

A

Insomnia

82
Q

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks; the sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

ex: Sally is in an important meeting when suddenly a wave of drowsiness falls over her, and she can’t help but to succumb to sleep. She has several spells like this throughout the day.

A

Narcolepsy

83
Q

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

ex: Robert wakes up 2x more than the average person does throughout the night, but he isn’t aware of it. Throughout the day, he finds himself falling asleep and feeling persistently tired no matter what he does.

A

Sleep Apnea

84
Q

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, these occur within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

ex: 5 year old Billy frequently has these; he sits up, talks incoherently, experiences doubled heart and breathing rates; he rarely ever remembers what he saw

A

Night Terrors

85
Q

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind

ex: could be about a person, object, or concept (usually random)

A

Dream

86
Q

according to Freud, the symbolic, remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content)

ex: censored symbolic version of our unconscious drives and wishes

A

Manifest Content

87
Q

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)

ex: the unconscious drives and wishes (often erotic) that would be threatening if expressed directly; a gun as a disguised representation of a penis

A

Latent Content

88
Q

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

ex: Luke pulled an all nighter one night during the summer, so the next night he went to bed early and slept all night like a baby

A

REM rebound

89
Q

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; generally used to process well-learned information or to solve easy problems

ex: when you see a bus coming towards you, you see its color, shape, depth, and motion all at once; your brain doesn’t process these things individually

A

Parallel Processing

90
Q

processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems

ex: tap a steady beat three times with your left hand while tapping four times with your right; this requires conscious attention and your brain must individually process each step

A

Sequential Processing

91
Q

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

ex: studying how genes can predispose an individual to show aggressive or violent behavior (parents and children will act similar in this regard)

A

Behavior Genetics

92
Q

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

ex: the likelihood you would have blue eyes

A

Heredity

93
Q

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

ex: the atmosphere your parents create when you are a child deeply affect the future of who you are

A

Environment

94
Q

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

ex: you have 46 in total, 23 from your mother and 23 from your father

A

Chromosomes

95
Q

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

ex: the way you look is determined by DNA; you don’t share the same DNA with anyone, unless you have a twin

A

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

96
Q

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins

ex: environmental events “turn these on” rather like hot water enabling a tea bag to express its flavor

A

Genes

97
Q

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes

ex: this is what makes us humans, rather than tulips, bananas, or chimpanzees

A

Genome

98
Q

develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

ex: Mary Kate and Ashley Olsen

A

Identical (monozygotic) twins

99
Q

develop from separate fertilized eggs; they are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment

ex: Scarlett and Hunter Johanssen

A

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins

100
Q

the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes; the _____ of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied

ex: 40% for many personality traits; 66% for general intelligence

A

Heritability

101
Q

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

ex: how our genes and experiences interact to form us as unique individuals

A

Interaction

102
Q

the subfield of biology that studies molecular structure and function of genes

A

Molecular genetics

103
Q

the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior

ex: body weight, sexual orientation, and impulsitivity

A

Molecular Behavior Genetics

104
Q

“above” or “in addition to” genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change

ex: an African butterfly that is green in summer turns brown in fall, thanks to a temperature-controlled genetic switch; the same genes that produced green in one situation will produce brown in another

A

Epigenetics

105
Q

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

ex: alcohol, caffeine, nicotine

A

Psychoactive Drug

106
Q

a disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

ex: diminished control, diminished social functioning, hazardous use, drug action

A

Substance Use Disorder

107
Q

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect

ex: Bianca does heroin every single day, so much that she doesn’t feel the same without more and more every day

A

Tolerance

108
Q

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior

ex: a man who has smoked cigarettes for forty years can’t just quit cold turkey, or he will start feeling symptoms of this

A

Withdrawal

109
Q

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

ex: alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates

A

Depressants

110
Q

(popularly known as alcoholism) alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use

ex: can shrink the brain, women are more vulnerable to it than men

A

Alcohol Use Disorder

111
Q

drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement

ex: Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are prescribed to induce sleep/reduce anxiety but in larger doses, they can impair memory and judgement

A

Barbiturates

112
Q

opium and its derivatives depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

ex: morphine, heroin, codeine

A

Opiates

113
Q

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

ex: nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, meth, and Ecstasy

A

Stimulants

114
Q

a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco

ex: cigarettes, e-cigarettes, and other tobacco products

A

Nicotine

115
Q

a powerful and addictive stimulant derived from coca plant; produces temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

ex: used to be used in Coca-Cola products, is now snorted, injected, or smoked

A

Cocaine

116
Q

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes

ex: parent drug for methamphetamine; user’s energy rises and mood soars

A

Amphetamines

117
Q

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

ex: triggers release of the neurotransmitter dopamine, which stimulates brain cells that enhance energy and mood

A

Methamphetamine

118
Q

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen; produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition

ex:major effect is releasing stored serotonin and blocking its reuptake; during the 1990s, its popularity as a “club drug” soared

A

Ecstasy (MDMA/Molly)

119
Q

psychedelic (“mind manifesting”) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

ex: LSD and Ecstasy; begins with simple geometric forms then consist of more meaningful images

A

Hallucinogens

120
Q

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

ex: visions of tunnels, bright lights, replays of old memories, or out-of-body sensations

A

Near-death experiences

121
Q

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid

ex: the result is an uninterrupted stream of fantastic pictures, extraordinary shapes with intense, kaleidoscopic play of colors

A

LSD

AP Psychology (7 decks)

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