Biological Bases Vocab Flashcards
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
ex: tells your body to react to pain
Neuron
the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell’s life support center
Cell body (soma- cells that aren’t reproductive)
a neuron’s often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body
Dendrites
the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
Axon
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
Myelin Sheath
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory
Glial Cells (glia)
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
Action Potential
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
ex: if excitatory signals exceed the inhibitory signals by a minimum intensity/threshold, the combined signals trigger an action potential
Threshold
in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state
ex: (a refractory period takes about a fraction of the time it takes to blink) if you were on the phone and it took you a slower amount of time to react to a car in front of you
Refractory Period
a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full strength response) or not firing
ex: (it’s like a gun, neurons either fire or they don’t) distinguishing a gentle touch from a big hug
All-or-none Response
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron; the tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft
ex: how the intention to move our arm translates to actually moving our arm
Synapse
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons; when released by the sending neuron, these travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
ex: (they affect awareness, mood, and hunger) endorphins, dopamine, serotonin, etc
Neurotransmitters
a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron
ex: some antidepressant medications work by partially blocking the reuptake of mood-enhancing neurotransmitters
Reuptake
“morphine within”-natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
ex: chemicals produced doing pleasurable things such as exercise or laughing, but can also happen during pain
Endorphins
a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action
ex: opiate drugs, heroine, morphine
Agonist
a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action
ex: Botulin, a poison that can form in improperly canned food, causes paralysis by blocking ACh release (also used for botox)
Antagonist
the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
ex: touching a hot plate, reflectively pulling back your hand, sending pain signals to your brain
Nervous System
the brain and spinal cord
Central Nervous System (CNS)
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body
ex: allows you to feel pain and other sensations
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the CNS with the muscles, glands, and sense organs
ex: the optic nerve bundles a million axons into a single cable carrying the messages from the eye to the brain
Nerves
neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
ex: touching a stove, these are what fire and sends signals to the nervous system
Sensory (afferent) Neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
ex: optical nerves
Motor (efferent) Neurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
ex: (our nervous system has a few million sensory neurons and a few million motor neurons, but it has billions and billions of these) golgi cell found in cerebellum
Interneurons
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles; also called the skeletal nervous system
ex: cranial nerves carry information from the brain to the head and neck region
Somatic Nervous System
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart); Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms
ex: salivating, sweating, crying, secreting hormones
Autonomic Nervous System
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy
ex: panic, anger, excitement, etc
Sympathetic Nervous System
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
ex: calms, conserves energy
Parasympathetic Nervous System
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus
ex: knee-jerk response
Reflex
the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
ex: insulin, growth, function of reproductive organs, etc
Endocrine System
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
ex: influence our interest in sex, food, and aggression
Hormones
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress
ex: regulate metabolism, immune system, blood pressure, response to stress, etc
Adrenal Glands
the endocrine system’s most influential gland; under the influence of the hypothalamus, this regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
ex: Oxytocin is released from this; enables contractions associated with birthing, milk flow during nursing, and orgasm
Pituitary Gland
a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive ___ scans (show brain function as well as structure)
ex: could show which brain areas are most active when people feel pain or rejection, listen to angry voices, think about scary things, feel happy, or become sexually excited
fMRI (functional MRI)
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
ex: if a cat’s brainstem is severed from the rest of the brain above it, the animal will still breathe and live- and even run, climb and groom; but, since it’s cut off from the brain’s higher regions, it won’t purposefully run or climb to get food
Brainstem
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
ex: if Jimmy was in a car crash that damaged this, the results could be fatal because it’s damaging his breathing and heartbeat
Medulla
the brain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
ex: receives information from all the senses except smell; routes info to higher brain regions that deal with seeing, hearing, tasting, and touching
Thalamus
a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal
ex: being able to watch television while writing an essay (multitasking) is all thanks to this
Reticular (“net-like”) Formation
the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory
ex: when a soccer player masterfully controls the ball, you can thank this
Cerebellum
neural system (including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives; border between old and new brain
ex: regulates emotion, memory, and basic motives
Limbic System
two lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion
ex: scientists removed this in an aggressive monkey, turning the normally ill-tempered animal super mellow
Amygdala
a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward
ex: eating, drinking, body temp
Hypothalamus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events
ex: a human who loses this to surgery or injury also lose their ability to form new memories of facts and events
Hippocampus
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information processing center
ex: main thinking crown of your brain
Cerebral cortex
tissue destruction; naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
Lesion
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface
ex: waves are measured by electrodes placed on scalp; it’s like studying a car engine by listening to its hum
EEG (electroencephalogram)
a brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain’s natural electrical activity
ex: cancels out other magnetic fields; participants sit underneath a head coil resembling a hair salon hairdryer
MEG (magnetoencephalography)
a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure (also called a CAT scan)
ex: Sally has been having issues with her balance; this will show her which part of her brain has damage that could be causing that
CT (computed tomography) scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
ex: after a person receives temporarily radioactive glucose, this scan can track the gamma rays released by this “food for thought” as a task is performed
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue; show brain anatomy
ex: have revealed a larger-than-average neural area in the left hemisphere of musicians who display perfect pitch
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead
ex: involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements
Frontal Lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear
ex: receives sensory input for touch and body position
Parietal Lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head
ex: includes areas that receive information from the visual fields (eyes)
Occipital Lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears
ex: includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
Temporal Lobes
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
ex: scientists discovered stimulating parts of the frontal lobe in the left or right hemisphere caused movements of specific body parts on the opposite side of the body
Motor Cortex
an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
ex: stimulate a point on the top of this band of tissue and a person may report being touched on the shoulder, this is due to your ___________; the more sensitive the body region, the larger the ___________ area devoted to it
Somatosensory Cortex
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
ex: they are found in all four lobes, therefore if you had damage in your frontal cortex, you have great cake baking skills but the inability to plan ahead to begin baking a cake for a birthday party
Association Areas
the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
ex: London’s taxi drivers must learn and remember 25,000 streets and their connections in 2-4 years; the end result being an enlarged hippocampus
Plasticity
the formation of new neurons
ex: baby neurons have been found in the brains of adult humans; these neurons may then migrate elsewhere and form connections with neighboring neurons
Neurogenesis
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
ex: severing this caused less seizures
Corpus Callosum
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly the corpus callosum) connecting them
ex: patients are surprisingly normal; their personality and intellect are hardly affected
Split Brain
our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment
ex: offers a reproductive advantage; helps us act in our long term interest rather than short term pleasure
Consciousness
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition
ex: perception, thinking, memory, and language
Cognitive Neuroscience
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
ex: the high road is conscious and deliberate and the low road is unconscious and automatic
Dual Processing
a condition in which a person can respond to visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
ex: a woman suffered brain damage, leaving her unable to recognize objects visually; yet she still acted as though she could
Blindsight
the study of evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
ex: focuses mostly on what makes us so much alike as humans
Evolutionary Psychology
the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
ex: 100 years ago there were dark and light moths in America; eventually, a new predatorial species was introduced that only ate light moths; the dark moths thrived and survived instead of being killed off
Natural Selection
a random error in gene replication that leads to a change
ex: Down Syndrome
Mutation
a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations
ex: women may learn that sexual encounters with strangers can be dangerous, and that casual sex may not offer much pleasure
Social Script
our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment
ex: being awake and knowing what is going on is an example of being _____
Consciousness
a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors
ex: helped alleviate headaches, asthma, and stress-related anxiety and skin disorders
Posthypnotic Suggestion
a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
ex: doodling while listening to a lecture or typing while having a conversation
Dissociation
a periodic, natural loss of consciousness-as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
ex: may seem “dead to the world” but you’re not; you can roll off the bed and not fall off; you can distinguish your baby crying from the sound of a moving vehicle outside
Sleep
our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24 hour cycle
ex: can be altered, depends on your usual awakening time and sleep time
Circadian Rhythm
rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur; also known as paradoxical sleep because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active
ex: when vivid dreams occur, deepest part of sleep
REM sleep
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
ex: can be seen on an EEG
Alpha Waves
non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep
NREM sleep
false sensory experiences
ex: seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus (seeing something that isn’t real)
Hallucinations
bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep
Hypnagogic Sensations
the large, slow brain waves associated with the deep sleep of NREM-3
*opposite of alpha waves
Delta Waves
a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm; in response to light, it causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
ex: As Bob has gotten older, he has more trouble falling asleep. He generally overestimates how long it takes him to fall asleep and underestimates how long he has actually slept.
Insomnia
a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks; the sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times
ex: Sally is in an important meeting when suddenly a wave of drowsiness falls over her, and she can’t help but to succumb to sleep. She has several spells like this throughout the day.
Narcolepsy
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
ex: Robert wakes up 2x more than the average person does throughout the night, but he isn’t aware of it. Throughout the day, he finds himself falling asleep and feeling persistently tired no matter what he does.
Sleep Apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, these occur within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered
ex: 5 year old Billy frequently has these; he sits up, talks incoherently, experiences doubled heart and breathing rates; he rarely ever remembers what he saw
Night Terrors
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind
ex: could be about a person, object, or concept (usually random)
Dream
according to Freud, the symbolic, remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content)
ex: censored symbolic version of our unconscious drives and wishes
Manifest Content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)
ex: the unconscious drives and wishes (often erotic) that would be threatening if expressed directly; a gun as a disguised representation of a penis
Latent Content
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
ex: Luke pulled an all nighter one night during the summer, so the next night he went to bed early and slept all night like a baby
REM rebound
processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; generally used to process well-learned information or to solve easy problems
ex: when you see a bus coming towards you, you see its color, shape, depth, and motion all at once; your brain doesn’t process these things individually
Parallel Processing
processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems
ex: tap a steady beat three times with your left hand while tapping four times with your right; this requires conscious attention and your brain must individually process each step
Sequential Processing
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
ex: studying how genes can predispose an individual to show aggressive or violent behavior (parents and children will act similar in this regard)
Behavior Genetics
the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring
ex: the likelihood you would have blue eyes
Heredity
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
ex: the atmosphere your parents create when you are a child deeply affect the future of who you are
Environment
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
ex: you have 46 in total, 23 from your mother and 23 from your father
Chromosomes
a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
ex: the way you look is determined by DNA; you don’t share the same DNA with anyone, unless you have a twin
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins
ex: environmental events “turn these on” rather like hot water enabling a tea bag to express its flavor
Genes
the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes
ex: this is what makes us humans, rather than tulips, bananas, or chimpanzees
Genome
develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
ex: Mary Kate and Ashley Olsen
Identical (monozygotic) twins
develop from separate fertilized eggs; they are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment
ex: Scarlett and Hunter Johanssen
Fraternal (dizygotic) twins
the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes; the _____ of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied
ex: 40% for many personality traits; 66% for general intelligence
Heritability
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
ex: how our genes and experiences interact to form us as unique individuals
Interaction
the subfield of biology that studies molecular structure and function of genes
Molecular genetics
the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior
ex: body weight, sexual orientation, and impulsitivity
Molecular Behavior Genetics
“above” or “in addition to” genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
ex: an African butterfly that is green in summer turns brown in fall, thanks to a temperature-controlled genetic switch; the same genes that produced green in one situation will produce brown in another
Epigenetics
a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
ex: alcohol, caffeine, nicotine
Psychoactive Drug
a disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk
ex: diminished control, diminished social functioning, hazardous use, drug action
Substance Use Disorder
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect
ex: Bianca does heroin every single day, so much that she doesn’t feel the same without more and more every day
Tolerance
the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior
ex: a man who has smoked cigarettes for forty years can’t just quit cold turkey, or he will start feeling symptoms of this
Withdrawal
drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
ex: alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates
Depressants
(popularly known as alcoholism) alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use
ex: can shrink the brain, women are more vulnerable to it than men
Alcohol Use Disorder
drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement
ex: Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are prescribed to induce sleep/reduce anxiety but in larger doses, they can impair memory and judgement
Barbiturates
opium and its derivatives depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
ex: morphine, heroin, codeine
Opiates
drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions
ex: nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, meth, and Ecstasy
Stimulants
a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco
ex: cigarettes, e-cigarettes, and other tobacco products
Nicotine
a powerful and addictive stimulant derived from coca plant; produces temporarily increased alertness and euphoria
ex: used to be used in Coca-Cola products, is now snorted, injected, or smoked
Cocaine
drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes
ex: parent drug for methamphetamine; user’s energy rises and mood soars
Amphetamines
a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels
ex: triggers release of the neurotransmitter dopamine, which stimulates brain cells that enhance energy and mood
Methamphetamine
a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen; produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition
ex:major effect is releasing stored serotonin and blocking its reuptake; during the 1990s, its popularity as a “club drug” soared
Ecstasy (MDMA/Molly)
psychedelic (“mind manifesting”) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
ex: LSD and Ecstasy; begins with simple geometric forms then consist of more meaningful images
Hallucinogens
an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations
ex: visions of tunnels, bright lights, replays of old memories, or out-of-body sensations
Near-death experiences
a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid
ex: the result is an uninterrupted stream of fantastic pictures, extraordinary shapes with intense, kaleidoscopic play of colors
LSD
