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Kaplan MCAT 7 Books > Biol Ch. 2 - Reproduction > Flashcards

Biol Ch. 2 - Reproduction Flashcards

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MCAT flashcards
1
Q

What are the 4 stages of the cell cycle?

A

G1, S, G2, and M

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2
Q

What 3 stages are collectively called interphase?

A

G1, S, G2

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3
Q

In what stage do cells that don’t divide stay in?

A

G0, which is an offshoot of G1

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4
Q

Why aren’t individual chromosomes visible with light microscopy during interphase?

A

Because they are in less condensed form, chromatin so that genes can be transcribed

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5
Q

In what stage do cells create organelles for energy and protein production (mitochondria, ribosomes, and endoplasmic reticulum), while also increasing their size?

A

G1 stage

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6
Q

What governs the passage into S (synthesis) stage? Certain criteria, such as containing the proper complement of DNA, must be met for the cell to pass.

A

Restriction point

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7
Q

In what stage do cells replicate genetic material so that each daughter cell will have identical copies? Single chromatid replicates to form 2 sister chromatids joined by centromere.

A

S stage

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8
Q

In what stage after DNA has already been duplicated, does the cell check to ensure that there are enough organelles and cytoplasm for two daughter cells?
Furthermore, the cell checks to make sure that DNA replication proceeded correctly.

A

G2 stage

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9
Q

What protein plays a role in controlling both checkpoints of the cell cycle?

A

p53

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10
Q

What molecules are responsible for the cell cycle? They form a complex which can phosphorylate transcription factors.

A

Cyclins and cyclin dependent kinases (CDK)

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11
Q

What promote transcription of genes required for the next stage of the cell cycle?

A

Transcription factors

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12
Q

What gene that produces p53, when mutated is commonly found in cancer? When this gene is mutated, the cell cycle is not stopped to repair damaged DNA.

A

TP53 gene

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13
Q

What is the distant spread of cancerous cells through the bloodstream or lymphatic systems?

A

Metastasis

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14
Q

What are cancer-causing genes that, when mutated, actively promote cell division?

A

Oncogenes

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15
Q

What are cancer-causing genes that, when mutated, lose their ability to regulate or arrest the cell cycle?

A

Tumor suppressor genes

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16
Q

What are the phases of mitosis and brief description of them?

A

Prophase—chromosomes condense, spindle forms
Metaphase—chromosomes align
Anaphase—sister chromatids separate
Telophase—new nuclear membranes form

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17
Q

What are microtubules that anchor centrioles to the cell membrane?

A

Asters

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18
Q

What occurs at the end of telophase? It is the separation of the cytoplasm and organelles, giving each daughter cell enough material to survive on its own?

A

Cytokinesis

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19
Q

What kind of division is it in Meiosis I where chromosomes separate, generating haploid daughter cells?

A

Reductional division

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20
Q

What kind of division is it in Meiosis II (similar to mitosis) where sister chromatids without a change in ploidy?

A

Equational division

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21
Q

What process in meiosis prophase I is where homologous chromosomes come together and intertwine?

A

Synapsis

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22
Q

In synapsis, each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids, so each synaptic pair contains four chromatids and is referred to as what?

A

Tetrad

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23
Q

While crossing over, chromatids of homologous chromosomes may break at the point of contact which is called what?

A

Chiasma

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24
Q

What refers to the tendency for genes to be inherited together? Genes that are located farther from each other physically are less likely to be inherited together, and more likely to undergo crossing over relative to each other.

A

Linkage

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25
Q

What states that the inheritance of one allele has no effect on the likelihood of inheriting certain alleles for other genes?

A

Mendel’s 2nd Law (law of independent assortment)

26
Q

What states that during disjunction, each chromosome of paternal origin separates (or disjoins) from its homologue of maternal origin, and either chromosome can end up in either daughter cell?

A

Mendel’s 1st Law (law of segregation)

27
Q

What is the short rest period between cell divisions during which the chromosomes partially uncoil?

A

Interkinesis

28
Q

What are males termed with respect to many of the genes on the X chromosome because they only have one copy?

A

Hemizygous

29
Q

What are sex linked disorders also called?

A

X-linked

30
Q

What secrete testosterone and other male sex hormones (androgens)?

A

Interstitial cells of Leydig

31
Q

What is sperm pathway?

A 
SEVE(N) UP
Seminiferous tubules
Epididymis
Vas deferens (also called the ductus deferens)
Ejaculatory duct
(Nothing)
Urethra
Penis
32
Q

What produces a clear viscous fluid that cleans out any remnants of urine and lubricates the urethra?

A

Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands

33
Q

What are spermatogenesis stages?

A

In males, the diploid stem cells are known as spermatogonia. After replicating their genetic material (S stage), they develop into diploid primary spermatocytes. The first meiotic division will result in haploid secondary spermatocytes, which then undergo meiosis II to generate haploid spermatids. Finally, the spermatids undergo maturation to become mature spermatozoa. Spermatogenesis results in four functional sperm for each spermatogonium.

34
Q

What is the cap that covers each sperm head?

A

Acrosome

35
Q

What lines the abdominal cavity of females and it is where between puberty and menopause, one egg per month is ovulated into?

A

Peritoneal sac

36
Q

What draws the egg from the peritoneal sac to the uterus?

A

Fallopian tubes

37
Q

What is the site of fetal development called?

A

Uterus

38
Q

What is the lower end of the uterus?

A

Cervix

39
Q

What is the production of female gametes called?

A

Oogenesis

40
Q

Spermatogonia vs oogonia

A

There is no unending supply of stem cells analogous to spermatogonia in females; all of the oogonia a woman will ever have are formed during fetal development.

41
Q

What is first menstrual cycle called?

A

Menarche

42
Q

By birth, all of the oogonia have already undergone DNA replication and are considered what?

A

Primary oocytes

43
Q

After menarche, one primary oocyte per month will complete meiosis I, producing what?

A

Secondary oocyte and a polar body

44
Q

What surrounds the oocyte itself and is an acellular mixture of glycoproteins that protect the oocyte and contain compounds necessary for sperm cell binding?

A

Zona pellucida

45
Q

What lies outside the zona pellucida and is a layer of cells that adhered to the oocyte during ovulation?

A

Corona radiata

46
Q

What are cells in seminiferous tubules that nourish sperm?

A

Sertoli cells

47
Q

After sperm cell penetration triggers Meiosis II, what is produced?

A

Mature ovum and another polar body

48
Q

Prior to puberty, hypothalamus restricts production of what?

A

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

49
Q

What does Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) do?

A

It triggers the anterior pituitary gland to

synthesize and release follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).

50
Q

What is the lining of the uterus that thickens each month due to estrogens?

A

Endometrium

51
Q

What are the remains of the ovarian follicle following ovulation?

A

Corpus luteum

52
Q

What is secreted by the corpus luteum? It is involved in the development and maintenance of the endometrium.

A

Progesterone

53
Q

What are the 4 phases of menstrual cycle?

A

Follicular phase, ovulation, the luteal phase, and menstruation

54
Q

What menstrual cycle phase? The menstrual flow, which sheds the uterine lining of the previous cycle, begins. GnRH secretion from the hypothalamus increases in response to the decreased concentrations of estrogen and progesterone, which fall off toward the end of each cycle. The higher concentrations of GnRH cause increased secretions of both FSH and LH. These two hormones work in concert to develop several ovarian follicles. The follicles begin to produce estrogen, which has negative feedback effects and causes the GnRH, LH, and FSH concentrations to level off. Estrogen stimulates regrowth of the endometrial lining, stimulating vascularization and glandularization of the decidua.

A 
Follicular phase 
HIGH FSH
LEVEL LH
LOW ESTROGEN, THEN HIGH ESTROGEN 
LOW PROGESTERONE
55
Q

What menstrual cycle phase? Estrogen is interesting in that it can have both negative and positive feedback effects. Late in the follicular phase, the developing follicles secrete higher and higher concentrations of estrogen. Eventually, estrogen concentrations reach a threshold that paradoxically results in positive feedback, and GnRH, LH, and FSH levels spike. The surge in LH is important; It induces this phase.

A 
Ovulation phase 
HIGH FSH
HIGHER LH
HIGH ESTROGEN
LOW PROGESTERONE
56
Q

What menstrual cycle phase? LH causes the ruptured follicle to form the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone. Remember that estrogen helps regenerate the uterine lining, but progesterone maintains it for implantation. Progesterone levels begin to rise, while estrogen levels remain high. The high levels of progesterone cause negative feedback on GnRH, FSH, and LH, preventing the ovulation of multiple eggs.

A 
Luteal phase 
LOW FSH
LEVEL LH
HIGH ESTROGEN
HIGH PROGESTERONE
57
Q

What menstrual cycle phase? Assuming that implantation does not occur, the corpus luteum loses its stimulation from LH, progesterone levels decline, and the uterine lining is sloughed off. The loss of high levels of estrogen and progesterone removes the block on GnRH so that the next cycle can begin.

A 
Menstruation phase
LOW FSH
LOW LH
LOW ESTROGEN
LOW PROGESTERONE
58
Q

What is an analog of LH—it looks very similar chemically and can stimulate LH receptors? This maintains the corpus luteum. It is critical during first trimester development because the estrogen and progesterone secreted by the corpus luteum keep the uterine lining in place. By the second trimester, its levels decline because the placenta has grown
to a sufficient size to secrete enough progesterone and estrogen by itself.

A

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

59
Q

What is this? As a woman ages her ovaries become less sensitive to FSH and LH, resulting in ovarian atrophy. As estrogen and progesterone levels drop, the endometrium also atrophies, and menstruation stops. Also, because the negative feedback on FSH and LH is removed, the blood levels of these two hormones rise.

A

Menopause

60
Q

What stage is primary oocyte arrested at?

A

Prophase I

61
Q

What stage is secondary oocyte arrested at?

A

Metaphase II

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