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Biol 371 > Biol 371 > Flashcards

Biol 371 Flashcards

1
Q

What are protists?

A

Unicellular eukaryotes

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2
Q

Did plants and animals have a common multicellular ancestor?

A

No. They had a common unicellular eukaryotic ancestor.

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3
Q

Did plants and animals diverge before engulfing mitochondria and chloroplasts or after? and why.

A

They diverged after mitochondria but before chloroplasts as we see both with mitochondria but animals do not have chloroplasts.

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4
Q

When did eukaryotes evolve?

A

About 2.5 mya

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5
Q

When did prokaryotes evolve?

A

About 3.5 bya

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6
Q

How do prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ in terms of their cytoskeleton?

A

Eukaryotes - well developped, internal, complex, allows for movement within cell as well as the cell itself
Prokaryotes - use diff. proteins, not able to be as flexible with movement within cells

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7
Q

How do the genomes of prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ?

A

Prokaryotes - circular DNA, loose in cell

Eukaryotes - membranne bound nucleus, multiple linear chromosomes

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8
Q

How do ribosomes differ between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A

Prokaryotes use 60S ribosomes, eukaryotes use 80S ribosomes.

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9
Q

What is a large advantage for eukaryotes over prokaryotes?

A

Eukaryotes have internal membranes which gives them a larger surface area for chemical processes. This allows them to become larger in volume but not much larger in surace area.

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10
Q

Describe sexual reproduction in eukaryotes

A

Combination of genes to produce unique offspring thereby increasing genetic diversity. This is a slow process.

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11
Q

Describe reprodution in prokaryotes.

A

Prokaryotes reproduce asexually meaning that they are exact copies of the first cell. This is a fast process.

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12
Q

Where is the axoneme located?

A

In eukayotic flagellum

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13
Q

What makes up the axoneme?

A

Nine pairs of microtubules. 8 in a circle conected with dynein arms and 1 in the middle.

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14
Q

What does the mitochondria do?

A

Oxidation phosphorolation forming ATP

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15
Q

Why do we believe that eukaryotes engulfed prokaryotes forming mitochondria and chloraplates?

A

Both have their own circular DNA separate from the cells DNA in the nucleus. They have a double membrane, 1 that was their own and 2 the one that formed around it during engulfment. Use of a 70S ribosome and not the 80S ribosome.

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16
Q

What types of cells are not multicellular?

A

Bacteria, prokaryotes, archaea

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17
Q

Why is there such a large gap between the evolution of prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A

Cyanobacteria were the first to use CO2 and produce O2. Iron in the earth used the O2 until it was all rusted at which point there was an increase in atmospheric O2 allowing for eukaryotes to evolve.

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18
Q

Why are the three theories of origins of multicellularity?

A
  1. Symbiotic theory
  2. Syncytial theory
  3. Colonial theory
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19
Q

What are dis-/advantages of the symbiotic theory?

A

Diff. species came together to form collective group with each species completing a differnet task.
Only problem is how do we explain all cells of a multicellular organism having the same DNA?

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20
Q

What are the dis-/advantages of the syncytial theory?

A

One cell broke nuclei into multiple nuclei and each section was to accomplish a diff. task.
There is not enough evidence supporting this theory.

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21
Q

What are the dis-/advantages of the colonial theory?

A

Grouping of one species working together to complete different tasks (specializing).
There is evidence that this happens but there is no evidence that they eventually form ONE functioning unit

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22
Q

List 3 advantages of being multicellular.

A
  • division of labour and economy of scale
  • increase size
  • complexity
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23
Q

List 4 disadvantages of being multicellular.

A
  • surface/volume relationship
  • interceullular communication
  • cell adhesion
  • structure and support
  • homeostasis
  • reproduction and growth
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24
Q

What is the name of animal and fungi ancestor?

A

Opisthokonts

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25
Q

What is the name of plant ancestors?

A

Archaeplastida

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26
Q

What does opisthokonts include?

A

animals, fungi and choanoflagelates

single, posterie (opisthios) flagellum (kontos)

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27
Q

How is it belived that opisthokonts evolved?

A

From a colony of choanoflagellates that formed a two-layered animal with a sac-within-a-sac body plan (a digestive cavity) due to envagination of one side of circular colony.

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28
Q

What are two identifiers of animals that no other organism has?

A
  • certain extracellular matrix molecules (proteoglycans and collagen)
  • tight/septate junctions for communication between cells ( desmosomes and gap junctions)
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29
Q

What does the archaeplastida include?

A

land plants, red and green algae

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30
Q

When did land plants first evolve?

A

490 mya (later than animals)

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31
Q

Name three main differences between plant and animal cells.

A
  • cell wall (support and transport)
  • vacule (turgor pressure)
  • chloroplats (photosynthesis)
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32
Q

Explain photoautotrophic

A

using light as an energy source and being able to fix inorganic carbon

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33
Q

Explain chemoheterotrophic

A

using other organisimes as an energy and organic carbon source

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34
Q

How did plants overcome their limit on movement?

A
  • ability to grow in different directions
  • phototrophic (orient themselves to light)
  • move in response to physical stimuli (venus fly trap)
  • disperse by pollen/seeds
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35
Q

What are some disadvantages of animals having to be mobile?

A
  • muscle
  • well developed senses
  • limbs/joints
  • high metabolic rate
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36
Q

What is a hydrostatic skeleton?

A

fluid filled system that uses pressure

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37
Q

Give examples of sessile animals.

A

All aquatic

-barnacle, coral, mussels, tube worms

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38
Q

How did sessile animals conserve energy?

A

They are filter feeders and allow the currents to bring them food. They also lost the head portion.

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39
Q

What was the first divergence of the colonial choanoflagellate?

A

Nerves. No nerves are the porifera (no true tissue only non-specialized cells) and nerves lead to radiata and bilateria

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40
Q

What are the three types of body symmetry?

A

aymmetrical (no symmetry)
radial (central axis with multiple symmetries)
bilateral (only one symmetry)

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41
Q

What are the three tissue layers?

A
  • Ectoderm (di, tri)
  • Endoderm (di, tri)
  • mesoderm (tri)
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42
Q

What are the three body cavity types?

A
  • acoelomate (no body cavity just tissue between gut and body wall)
  • pseudocoelomate (fluid filled cavity between gut and body wall)
  • -(eu)coelmoate (completely lined by mesoderm derivative)
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43
Q

What are the two types of clevage?

A

Protosomes

Deuterostomes

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44
Q

What are the characteristics of protosomes

A
  • determinate
  • schizocoelous coelom
  • spiral clevage
  • mouth forms first then anus Mouth formed by the blastopore (proto= first stoma=mouth)
  • ventral (nerve cord surronds digestive tract anteriorly)
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45
Q

What are the characteristics of deuterostomes?

A
  • indeterminate
  • enterocoelous coelom
  • radial clevage
  • anus forms first then the mouth (deutero=second stoma= mouth)
  • dorsal (hollow nerve cord. brain doesn’t surround digestive tract)
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46
Q

What are the two sub classes of protosomes?

A

Lophotochazoans
Ecdoysozoans
(refer to feeding system)

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47
Q

What is the difference between medusa and polyp forms?

A

Medusa is mobile and the moth faces down.

Polyp is sessile and mouth faces up

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48
Q

What is the phylum for flat worms?

A

platyhelminthes

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49
Q

What is ecdysis?

A

Shedding of the exoskeleton in order to grow larger.

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50
Q

Describe the phylum Rotifera.

A

The one with the rotating drill like structures called corona.

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51
Q

What two phylum are included in the Ecdysozoans? And what is a defining feature?

A

Phylum Nematoda
Phylum Arthropoda
they both have an external cuticle for protection. All bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.

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52
Q

What model organism is included in the phylum Nematoda?

A

C. elegans.

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53
Q

What are three common features of arthropods?

A
  • exoskeleton
  • jointed legs
  • segmented body
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54
Q

What are the two phylum of deuterostomes?

A
  • phylum Echinodermata

- phylum Chordata

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55
Q

What is unique about the phylum Echinodermata?

A

They are bilateral larvae but are pentaradiate symmetry as adults. Also you can cut in half and they will become two organisms.

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56
Q

What are the 4 characteristics of the phylum Chordata?

A
  • notochord (flexible rod for muscle attachment)
  • dorsal, hollow nerve cord
  • gill slits
  • segmented muscles with post anal tail
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57
Q

What are the three sub divisions of the phylum Chordata?

A
  • cephalochordata
  • urochordata
  • vertebrata
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58
Q

What three characteristics do plants share?

A
  • primary cell wall
  • cellulose fibers in matrix of hemicellulose
  • rigid but flexible
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59
Q

What in plants make them hard to digest?

A

cellulose

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60
Q

What will happen to a plant if it has very high hemicellulose?

A

It will be easier to degrade

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61
Q

Where do you find the xylem and sclerenchyma cells?

A

In the secondary cell wall.

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62
Q

What are some characteristics of the cell wall?

A
  • cellulose is anchored with lignin
  • stronger more rigid
  • waterproof barrier
  • not all cells have secondary cell walls, just the ones that support the rest of the plant
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63
Q

What is the purpose of lignin?

A

Lignin is hydrophobic that forms covalent bonds with the primary cell wall to strengthen the plant. Without lignin the plant would fall over.

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64
Q

Does the cell wall provide the rigid support the plant needs?

A

No it is the pressure from the vacule that makes it rigid.

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65
Q

Do vacules have low or high solute concentration?

A

High solute concentration.

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66
Q

What happens to a plant cell in an hypotonic solution?

A

The solute concentration is higher in the solution and so by osmosis water moves into the cell vacule causing cell the be turgid.

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67
Q

What happens to a plant cell in an hypertonic solution?

A

Water leaves the cell vacule to balance solute concentration. This causes the cell to be PLASMOLYZED.

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68
Q

What are two was of classifying land plants?

A
  • Vasculature

- Seeds

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69
Q

What makes up the vascular bundles?

A
  • xylem
  • phloem
  • parenchyma cells
  • fiber cells (sclerenchyma cells)
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70
Q

What do the xylem cells do?

A

Water transportation. Dead at maturity. Has secondary cell wall strengthened by lignin.

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71
Q

What do phloem cells do?

A

Sugar and other solute transportation.

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72
Q

What do the sclerenchyma cells do?

A

Provide rigid support to xylem and phloem.

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73
Q

When do we see land plants starting to form?

A

475 mya

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74
Q

When do vascular plants form?

A

425 mya

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75
Q

When do seed plants start to be seen?

A

305 mya

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76
Q

What do we call non-vascular plants?

A

Bryophytes

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77
Q

What do the Bryophytes include?

A

mosses, liverworts and hornworts

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78
Q

What are the two types of seedless land plants?

A

Lycophytes

Pterophytes

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79
Q

What are the two types of plants with seeds?

A

Gymnosperm

Angiosperm

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80
Q

What are common characteristics of non-vascular plants?

A
  • haploid generation is dominant

- requires water for fertilization

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81
Q

What does the word POIKILOHYDRIC mean?

A

poikilo= variable hydric=water
They can not control internal water content. If environment has a drought they dry out but will survive. They are drought tolerators.

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82
Q

Is the sporophyte haploid or diploid?

A

Diploid

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83
Q

What does the sporophyte (2n) make and how?

A

Spores (n) through meiosis

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84
Q

What does the gametophyte make and how?

A

Multiplies gametes (n) through mitosis.

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85
Q

How does the sporophyte form in moss?

A

It is the zygote which will later release spores.

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86
Q

What are microphylls? And which plants are they found in?

A

A microphyll is a narrow stem with ONE vein of vascular tissue. Lycophytes (pete moss)

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87
Q

What are megaphylls?

A

Broad leaf with many veins. Found in all other vascular plants.

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88
Q

In ferns (Pterophyta) where are the sporangia found?

A

Lower surface of leaf in groups called a sori.

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89
Q

In ferns which stage is dominant?

A

Diploid- sporophyte

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90
Q

What is antheridiogen?

A

It is a pheromone that promotes other gametophytes to produce sperm not eggs to increase the chances of cross fertilization and increase genetic diversity.

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91
Q

How can you tell which is the dominant phase?

A

The one that is completing the photosynthesis and supporting the other.

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92
Q

What are the two types of seed plants?

A

Angiosperms and Gymnosperms

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93
Q

What are other names for the pollen and female spores?

A

Microspore and megaspore respectively

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94
Q

What is a large difference between a megaspore and a microspore?

A

Microspore will creat 4 viable gametes whereas the megaspore will create 4 cells but only one becomes the gamete.

95
Q

Why doesn’t pollen have flagella?

A

Pollen is moved by air and not water; because of this is not not need to be motile in the same sense they have wing type structures instead

96
Q

How does the ovule differ from seedless plants?

A

The female gamete remains connected and protected by the sporophyte and once the ovule is fertilized it seals up and becomes the egg.

97
Q

What is the cotyledon?

A

The cotyledon is on the embryo that looks like fingers

98
Q

What are advantages of seeds?

A
  • protected from environment
  • can travel far from parent tree
  • dormancy is the greatest adaptation over animals.
99
Q

What is the difference between monocots and eudicots?

A 
Monocot
- single cotyledon
- parallel-veined leaves
- vascular bundles scattered
- flower petals in multiple of three
Eudicots
- reticulate veins
- central core of vascular tissue in stem
- flower part in fours or fives
100
Q

What are advantages of angiosperms over gymnosperms

A
  • better vessel elements
  • more efficient phloem due to companion cells
  • ovary is now protected by fruit
  • double fertilization for produce embryo and endosperm
101
Q

What are the challenges of life on land?

A
  • desiccation
  • respiration
  • reproduction
  • locomotion
  • senses
102
Q

Why do we believe anthropods were the first animal on land?

A
  • exoskeleton
  • jointed limbs
  • multiple apendiges
103
Q

What adaptations do land plants have to overcome the challenges of life on land?

A
  • waxy cuticle
  • stomata
  • vascular tissue
  • root system
104
Q

How does the cuticle on plants prevent water loss?

A

The cuticle is hydrophobic

105
Q

What synthesizes the cuticle?

A

The epidermal cell

106
Q

What part of the epidermal does the cuticle attach to?

A

Pavement cells

107
Q

When is the stomata open and when is it closed?

A 
Flaccid = closed
turgid = open
108
Q

What plants are tracheids found in?

A

Gymnosperms and ferns

109
Q

What plants are vessels found in?

A

Angiosperms

110
Q

How do tracheids and vessels differ?

A

Tracheids
- narrow
- water must pass through primary cell wall
Vessels
- shorter and wider
- both primary and secondary cell wall has gaps to facilitate water movement

111
Q

What are ways animals decrease water loss on land?

A
  • cuticle/ skin
  • avoid hot/dry environments
  • replace water by drinking
  • concentrate urine to lose less water
112
Q

What is aestivation?

A

Animals that dry out but are still alive

113
Q

What are spiracles?

A

Opening of trachea at body surface

114
Q

How does the rotifer reproduce in unstressed environment?

A

An adult female will produce a diploid egg through mitosis and the egg will grow and develop through mitosis.

115
Q

How does the rotifer reproduce in stressed environment?

A

An adult female will make a haploid egg through meiosis. Through mitosis the egg will from an adult male. This male will make haploid sperm. The sperm and the haploid egg will form a zygote that can survive until favorable conditions are met.

116
Q

How does temperature affect cells?

A 
Freezing = lysed cells
heat = denatured proteins
117
Q

How do animals overcome hearing on land?

A

Use fluid in the ear and the tympanal organ to detect vibrations.

118
Q

What are the ways to support heavy body weight?

A
  • skeleton for muscle attachment
  • thick robost limbs
  • rib cage to support organs
119
Q

How do aquatic animals excrete ammonia?

A

Diffusion into surrounding water

120
Q

How to vertebrates excrete ammonia?

A

Turn ammonia into urea with is less toxic and so does not need to be diluted as much

121
Q

How do eggs and invertebrates excrete ammonia?

A

Change ammonia into uric acid crystals

122
Q

What are the three systems of body weight support structures?

A
  • Sprawling
  • erect
  • pillar-erect (extinct)
123
Q

What are challenges of living in water?

A
  • water is dense and harder to move through than air
  • water has low oxygen content
  • water has high thermal conductance
124
Q

How do aquatic endotherms deal with the temperature of the water?

A

Since they generate heat and this is very costly they breath air to increase the availability of oxygen in their system rather than get it from the water

125
Q

What are three ways to conserve heat in water?

A
  • insulate (blubber, fat)
  • respiratory medium (breath air instead)
  • countercurrent heat exchange (as warm blood moves toward the surface it gives its heat to cold blood moving to body core. Requires parallel vessels)
126
Q

Describe the negative feedback loop of homeostasis.

A

There is a setpoint to which it wants to be. This communicates with the integrator. The integrator will give negative feedback to the metabolic process. This occurs when the product triggers the sensor which communicates with the integrator.

127
Q

What are some substances that need to be maintained?

A
  • nutrients
  • gasses
  • pH
  • ammonia
  • water
  • volume/pressure
  • temperature
128
Q

What is diffusion?

A

Moving from high to low concentration

129
Q

What is Frick’s law?

A

Rate=DAdC/dX

130
Q

What are the three possibilities of comparing two solutions to each other?

A
  • Hyperosmotic (the cell has lower solute concentration than the ECF)
  • Hyposmotic (the cell has higher solute concentration than ECF)
  • Isosmotic (the two solutions have the same concentration)
131
Q

How do you calculate water potential?

A

Water potential = - osmotic + hydrostatic
osmotic = drawing water in
Hydrostatic = pushing water out

132
Q

How does water potential affect animals?

A

Only concerned with osmotic because if the cell swells it will burst and if the cell shrinks it will die

133
Q

How does water potential affect plants?

A

Need to look at both osmotic and hydrostatic effects since there is a cell wall on plants that the vacule can push against and push water out.

134
Q

What are the two ways animals can osmoregulate?

A
  1. Osmoconformers

2. Osmoregulators

135
Q

What do osmoconformers do?

A

Adjust osmotic strength of cells to match environment.

136
Q

What do osmoregulators do?

A

Adjust osmotic strength of extracellular fluid to match cells

137
Q

What are the three steps in excreting waste?

A
  • Filtration
  • Secretion
  • Reabsorption
138
Q

What is the main objective during the excretion process?

A

Create a concentrated product for removal with least amount of water possible.

139
Q

Why is circulation important?

A
  • communication
  • nutrient movement
  • diffusion is not enough in larger animals
140
Q

How does the metabolic rate compare in animals to plants?

A

Animals have high metabolic rates while plants have low metabolic rates.

141
Q

What are the three types of muscle in animals?

A
  • Skeletal
  • Smooth (provides tension around blood vessels)
  • Cardiac muscle
142
Q

What does smooth muscle do?

A

Provides tension around blood vessels

143
Q

What is important about the heart?

A

It increases the pressure of the bulk flow as vessels reduce pressure due to resistance.

144
Q

How do single circuit work?

A

Passes through the heart only once then must go by gills and body before returning to the heart.
- No lungs

145
Q

How does variable circuits work?

A

They pass through the heart twice before going through the rest of the body. The first time they go to the gills or lungs. There is no division between the two sides of the heart.

146
Q

How does double circuit work?

A

Passes through the heart twice and is separated between the two ventricles. The first pass is to the lungs to collect oxygen while the second pass is to the rest of the body.

147
Q

What do arteries do?

A

Carry fluid away from heart

148
Q

What do Veins do?

A

carry blood to the heart

149
Q

What does blood contain?

A

Plasma - water, ions, proteins, gas
Erythrocytes
Leukocytes
Platelets

150
Q

What is an open circulatory system?

A

The blood moves from the heart to the cells. Bathing them before returning to the heart. Direct contact with cells.

151
Q

What is a closed circulatory system?

A

The blood moves from the heart through vessels then through small capillaries. The substances then move from the blood into the ECF before going into the cell. No direct contact.

152
Q

Why must plants and animals breath?

A

krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation
- consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide
photosynthesis
- consumes CO2 and releases O2

153
Q

What are the four steps of gas exchange in animals?

A
  1. Ventilation
  2. Diffusion
  3. Perfusion
  4. Diffusion
154
Q

What is required for gas exchange on land?

A
  • large surface area (surface to volume ratio)
  • moist to dissolve gas
  • thin so easy to diffuse
155
Q

What are spiracles?

A

trachea openings on the surface

156
Q

How many essential elements do plants require?

A

17

157
Q

What are macroelements?

A

they are essential in large quantities

158
Q

What are microelements?

A

they are essential in small quantities

159
Q

What is humus?

A

decomposing organics

160
Q

What charge is humus and clay?

A

negative

161
Q

Why is it beneficial to have clay and humus in the soil?

A

Since they are both negative they hold water better allowing for a better soil solution for plant uptake

162
Q

What is soil solution?

A

It is the water that remains after gravity that has dissolved substances and coats soil particles

163
Q

How do plants acquire cations?

A

They release either H+ or H2CO3 (which dissociates into HCO3- and H+) to exchange the cations attached to clay particles

164
Q

How is carbonic acid formed?

A

respiring root cells

165
Q

How do plants acquire anions?

A

simple diffusion

166
Q

Why is it more difficult to acquire anions compared to cations in neutral pH?

A

Anions are weakly bound to soil particles and can easily be leached out by excess water.

167
Q

Why is it more difficult to acquire cations in acidic soil?

A

The cations are not bound as well to the clay and so leach out.

168
Q

What is passive transport?

A

When particles move from high to low concentration. This can either be with simple diffusion or with pumps

169
Q

What is active transport?

A

This requires energy and moves against the concentration gradient.

170
Q

What is mycorrhizas?

A

The symbiotic relationship between fungus and root hairs. Plant supplies fungus with carbon and the fungus increases plants nutrients

171
Q

What is nitrogen fixation?

A

Taking N2 from atmosphere an making NH4+. Done by bacteria

172
Q

What is ammonification?

A

Breaking decaying organic N into NH4+

173
Q

What is bacterial nitrification?

A

Bacteria oxidizes NH4+ into NO3- (plants prefer NO3-)

174
Q

What is short distance transport?

A

Between cells and to and from vascular tissue

175
Q

What is long distance transport?

A

Movement of substances between root and shoots

176
Q

What is aquaporin?

A

Proteins that allow rapid movement of water through hydrophobic membrane core

177
Q

In water potential which way does it move?

A

From high to low water potential

178
Q

How do solutes affect water potential?

A

It lowers the water potential

179
Q

How does pressure affect water potential?

A

Positive pressure increases water potential while negative (tension) decreases water potential.

180
Q

What is tonoplast?

A

the membrane on the vacule

181
Q

What are the three ways solutes travel?

A
  1. Apoplast
  2. Symplast
  3. Cell to cell
182
Q

What is apoplast

A

moving between the cells

183
Q

What is symplast?

A

moving between cells through plasmodesmata

184
Q

How far can solutes move in apoplast?

A

Only until the reach the casparian strip in the endodermis which then they switch to symplastic

185
Q

What is the casparian strip made of?

A

suberin which is a waxy substance

186
Q

What are two purposes of the casparian strip?

A
  1. regulates ion and water intake into the plant

2. restricts solutes from flowing back

187
Q

What is the greatest loss of water in plants?

A

Transpiration

188
Q

What is guttation?

A

when root pressure forces water out of the leaves

189
Q

What is root pressure?

A

When there is high humidity or low light there is excess water being drawn into the roots and so forces the xylem to move upward. Because this is a slight force it is only effective in small plants.

190
Q

What is translocation?

A

long distance transport via the phloem

191
Q

Why do substances move in the phloem?

A

Difference of pressure in the source and sink areas

192
Q

What is the purpose of companion cells?

A

They acquire sugar from mesophyll then make larger before passing into phloem to prevent back flow. They also support the phloem cell as it no longer has a nucleus

193
Q

What is the stomata made of?

A

Two guard cells

194
Q

What is the transpiration-photosynthesis compromise?

A

Stomata open when environmental conditions are favourable

195
Q

What hormone causes the stomata to close?

A

Abcisic acid (ABA)

196
Q

Where is abcisic acid synthesized?

A

Roots

197
Q

How does CO2 affect pH?

A

High CO2 means low pH

Low CO2 means high pH

198
Q

What the hormones help growth and how do they differ?

A

Auxins - promote growth
Gibberellins - stimulate growth and elongation of stems
Cytokinins - enhance growth and retard aging
Brassinosteroids - regulate growth
Jasmonates - regulate growth and plant defence

199
Q

What does the hormone ethylene do?

A

Senescence

200
Q

What does abscisic acid do?

A

Suppresses growth and responds to environmental stress

201
Q

What hormone is used in herbicide?

A

Auxins - causes plant to grow too quickly causing it to die

202
Q

How do plants move in response to sunlight?

A

Auxins cause cells on the far side to elongate cause the stem to bend

203
Q

What is the acid - growth hypothesis?

A

Auxin moves H+ into the cell wall causing it to have high pH. The cellulose fibers then loosen

204
Q

What does high gibberellin do?

A

Causes bolting where the plant no longer produces flowers just leaves. Also enlarged fruit

205
Q

What do we mean by perfect flowers?

A

They are bisexual; having both male and female

206
Q

What do we mean by imperfect flowers?

A

they only have one sex and so can not self fertilize

207
Q

What does monoecious mean?

A

The plant has both male and female flowers

ex Corn

208
Q

What does dioecious mean?

A

Some plants are all male while other plants are all female

ex Willow

209
Q

What is double fertilization?

A

Two sperms are used; one to form the embryo and the other to form the endosperm. Only occurs in angiosperm

210
Q

How do wet and dry stigmas differ?

A

Dry will only let certain pollen in, wet will let any pollen in but destroy the pollen tube if it is not the correct sperm

211
Q

What is fission reproduction?

A

Splitting into two individuals of the same size

212
Q

What is budding reproduction?

A

offspring grows off the parent resulting in two individuals of different sizes

213
Q

What is fragmentation?

A

When an organism is cut into two pieces and those pieces then grow to become two individuals

214
Q

What is pathenogenesis?

A

Production of eggs that don’t need to be fertilized creating exact clones of the parent

215
Q

When is asexual reproduction favorable?

A
  • unable to find mate
  • fast reproduction
  • stable environment
216
Q

When is sexual reproduction favorable?

A
  • changing environment (unstable)

- allows for genetic diversity

217
Q

What is broadcast spawning?

A

I type of external fertilization where sperm and eggs are released and hoped to be fertilized

218
Q

How can you increase the chances that external fertilization will work?

A
  • mating behaviours
  • nest building
  • proximity/ timing
219
Q

Why do most land animals have internal fertilization?

A

Allows them to prevent desication.

220
Q

How do terrestrial animals ensure the right sperm is fertilizing the egg?

A

Certain behavior patterns or pH level

221
Q

What does the acrosomal reaction do during fertilization?

A

The acrosome is the head of the sperm. This will make contact with the egg releasing enzymes to dissolve a pathway in the outer layer of the egg. Once the sperm penetrates the vitelline coat with the help of proteins it depolarizes the membrane and fast blocks polyspermy.

222
Q

What does the cortical reaction do during fertilization?

A

During the fusion of egg and sperm Ca2+ is released starting the cortical reaction where cortical granules coat the egg once again to prevent polyspermy

223
Q

What does oviparous mean?

A

they lay eggs with shells to keep moisture inside

224
Q

What does viviparous mean?

A

it is internal growth where the mother provides the nutrients

225
Q

What does ovoviviparous mean?

A

The egg is developed internally

226
Q

What is direct development?

A

They young look the same they just need to get larger

227
Q

What is indirect development?

A

They young look nothing like the adults and usually requires them to pass through stages

228
Q

What does yolk do to an egg?

A

Yolk is viscous and so prevents cells from dividing and so they become larger than the other ones

229
Q

How do holoblastic and meroblastic eggs differ?

A

Holoblastic is when there is little yolk and so cells are all the same size.
Meroblastic is when there is lots of yolk and only some cells divide

230
Q

What is the archenteron?

A

A primitive gut in the early stages of development

231
Q

What does the endoderm form?

A

gut
liver
lungs

232
Q

What does the ectoderm form?

A

skin

nervous system

233
Q

What does the mesoderm from?

A

muscle
bones
blood

234
Q

What are the homeotic genes?

A

They regulate the development of the embryo and the fate of the cells

Biol 371 (6 decks)

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