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Anatomy and Physiology > BIOL 233 Exam #2 > Flashcards

BIOL 233 Exam #2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is Hypertension?

A

A long-term medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated.
Does not cause immediate symptoms but in long term, it is a major risk factor.

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2
Q

What is Hypotension?

A

Low blood pressure especially in the arteries of the systemic circulation.
Severely low blood pressure can deprive the brain and vital organs of oxygen and nutrients.
Leads to a life-threatening condition referred to as a shock

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3
Q

How is Hyper/Hypotension measured by a sphygmanograph?

A

Systolic blood pressure: when the heart beats- while the heart muscle is squeezing and pumping oxygen-rich blood into the blood vessels.
Diastolic blood pressure: the pressure on the blood vessels when the heart muscle relaxes. always lower than systolic pressure (bottom number).
Measured in mmHg (milimeters of mercury)

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4
Q

How do Baroreceptors regulate Hyper/Hypotension?

A

Help maintain blood pressure homeostasis. Mechanoreceptors located in blood vessels (arteries) near the heart that provide the brain with information regarding blood volume and pressure by detecting the level of stretch on vascular walls. As blood volume increases, vessels are stretched and the firing rate of baroreceptors increases.
maintain pressure in blood system.
can make brain change pressure (decreasing heart rate)

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5
Q

What are Arteries?

A

Vessels that carry blood AWAY from the heart.

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6
Q

What are Arterioles?

A

A very small blood vessel that branches off from your artery and carries blood from you heart to your tissues and organs.

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7
Q

What are Capillaries?

A

Are narrow and allows the RBC to release or collect gasses within one another. Carries blood, nutrients and oxygen to cells in your organs and are the smallest blood vessel.

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8
Q

What are Venules?

A

Smallest veins and receive blood from capillaries.
Are post-capillary sphincters located between capillaries and venules.
Play important role in exchange of oxygen and nutrients for water products.

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9
Q

What are Veins?

A

Vessels that carry blood TOWARDS the heart.

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10
Q

How is Metarteriole associated with Capillary Beds and Precapillary Sphincters?

A

Metarterioles are delicate blood vessels that branch from arterioles and connect with the capillary bed.
Precapillary sphincters located at the junction of a metarterioles with a capillary to regulate blood flow.
Sphincters are important to help reduce blood flow to inactive tissues.

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11
Q

What are the 3 layers of tissues associated with Blood Vessels?

A
  • tunica intima
  • tunica media
  • tunica externa
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12
Q

What are the characteristics of Tunic Media in Arteries?

A
  • middle layer of blood vessel
  • composed of smooth muscle tissue
  • gives the vessel resiliency against pressure of blood
  • thickest in arteries
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13
Q

What are the characteristics of Tunica Media in Veins?

A
  • middle layer of blood vessel
  • composed of smooth muscle tissue
  • gives the vessel resiliency against pressure of blood
  • medium thickness in veins
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14
Q

What are the 3 types of Capillaries?

A

Capillaries: narrow (barely width of RBC) and allows RBC to release or collect gasses within one another.
Continuous Capillary
- most abundant in body
- conducts blood to two areas of the body for gas exchange
- most common
- in lungs, glands, and tissue
Fenestrated Capillary
- pores that allow small molecules and limited amount of protein to diffuse
- urinary system
Discontinuous Capillary (sinusoids)
- huge pores (permeable)
- rare
- bone marrow
- aids in rapid cell migration

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15
Q

What are the Cross Sectional Areas associated with different types of vessels?

A

Determines the resistance and is a regulator for blood flow.
More area=velocity of flow decreases (slows down)
Capillaries=largest area
Arteries and veins=smaller area

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16
Q

How does Blood Pressure vary across the vessel types?

A

Pressure declines due to increase surface area and leakage of capillaries.
Veins have the lowest pressure:
- thin walls
- open and closing of valves in veins help push blood back to the heart
- doesn’t allow gravity to pool blood towards the feet
Arteries can handle high pressure:
- thick walls
- pushes blood out of your heart
Capillaries:
- low pressure
- due to dilation of arterioles, which increases blood flow to the downstream capillaries

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17
Q

What Valves are used in Veins?

A

One-way valves
- two cusps help return blood to the heart
- as blood moves towards the heart, the cusps push open like a door

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18
Q

What Valves are used in Lymphatic Vessels?

A
  • two semilunar leaflets
  • prevents backflow of fluid
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19
Q

How do Baroreceptors help regulate blood pressure?

A

Constantly adjust the sympathetic activity in relation to systemic blood pressure changes in order to maintain homeostasis.
Baroreceptors control the sympathetic drive to the heart and the peripheral blood vessels.
Baroreceptors signal the brain when BP changes and the brain signals the heart/blood vessel to take action in raising or lowering blood pressure.

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20
Q

How does Blood Distribute at rest compared to Physical Exertion?

A

During physical activity, blood is sent to active skeletal muscle and as temperature increases, blood is sent to the skin.
Skeletal muscle receives 60% less cardiac output at rest than exercise.

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21
Q

What is Portal Hypertension and Ascites?

A

A medical condition with increased pressure in the portal blood vessels that cause protein-containing (ascitic) fluid to leak from the liver and intestine accumulating in the abdomen.
Commonly caused by:
- cirrhosis of the liver (alcoholism)
- chronic hepatitis (inflamed liver)

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22
Q

How does lymph flow in the body?

A

Lymphatic system absorbs excess lymph fluid from capillaries and returns it to the blood to eventually become plasma by lymphatic vessels through nodes.
The lymphatic channels from the liver and mesentery drain toward the thoracic duct which is responsible for lymph drainage.

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23
Q

What are the differences of Lymphatic Vessels and Blood Vessels?

A

Lymphatic vessels drain the excess fluid that collects in tissues and serves as immune defense.
- drain into circulatory system (blood)
Blood vessels deliver oxygen and nutrients to all cells in embryos and adults.

24
Q

What are the design features and functions of Lymphatic Capillaries?

A
  • thin walls; allows single cell through
  • closed at one end
  • mini valve that lets fluid flow into but not out of
  • cells overlap each other so fluid can easily enter the capillaries
25
Q

Where are Lymph Nodes located?

A

Groin, armpit, behind ear, back of head, sides of neck, and under jaw and chin

26
Q

How are Lymph Nodes designed?

A

Small kidney-shaped structures.
- linked throughout the body by lymphatic vessels

27
Q

What are the functions of Lymph Nodes?

A
  • Important for the function of the immune system
  • Major sites for lymphocytes that include B and T-cells
28
Q

What are the Lymphoid Organs? And what are they used for/located?

A

Structures that are important in the function of the lymphatic system. 3 Kinds.
(1) Primary Lymphoid Organs:
- thymus
bone marrow (involved in the production of lymphocyte tissues)
(2) Secondary Lymphoid Organs:
- lymph nodes
- tonsils (two nodes on either side of the throat. function as a defense mechanism and help decrease the chances your body will be infected)
- peyer’s patches (small masses of tissue found throughout the ileum region of the small intestine. important for immune system by monitoring bacteria populations and preventing bad growth)
- spleen (largest organ in lymphatic system; valuable for regulating fluid balance. further detects infectious agents, but can live without it)
- appendix (small, pouch-like sac of tissue in colon (cecum) in lower right abdomen, aids in immune function. correct name is vermiform appendix meaning “worm-like appendage”
(3) Tertiary Lymphoid Organs (TLOs): abnormal lymph structures that form in peripheral tissues at sites of chronic inflammation such as chronic infections, transplanted organs undergoing rejection, cancers, and autoimmune diseases.

29
Q

What is Innate Immunity?

A

Defense were are born with.
Effects are local, non-specific, and lack a ‘memory’.
Comprises the first and second lines of defense:
- first line; epithelial barriers
- second line; leukocytes, macrophages, antimicrobial proteins, natural killer cells, fever, and inflammation

30
Q

What is Adaptive Immunity?

A

Defenses our body develops over time and through exposure to specific pathogens.
Effects can be more wide spread.
Comprises the third line of defense:
- a group of mechanisms that kills a pathogen but also creates a ‘memory’ of the pathogen
- future exposure to that pathogen can be more rapidly attacked and destroyed

31
Q

What are the 3 lines of defense?

A

1st
2nd
3rd

32
Q

What are the Inflammatory Reponses?

A

Inflammation
- a protective response involving immune cells, blood vessels, and molecular mediators
Functions: eliminate the initial cause of cell injury, clear our necrotic cells and tissues damaged from the original injury and to initiate tissue repair
Response
- occurs when tissues are injured by bacteria, trauma, toxins, heat or other causes
- damaged cells release causing blood vessels to leak fluid into the tissues, leading to swelling in the injured area

33
Q

How are Margination, Extravasation, and Diapedesis used?

A

Margination: halts the movement of neutrophils
Extravasation: migration of neutrophils
Diapedesis: passage of blood cells through the intact walls of the capillaries, typically accompanying inflammation

34
Q

What are the characteristics of Natural Killer Cells, Antimicrobial Proteins, and a Fever?

A

Natural Killer Cells: a lymphocyte able to bind to certain tumor cells and virus-infected cells without the stimulation of antigens and kill them by the insertion of granules containing perforin.
Antimicrobial Proteins: a range of potent, broad spectrum antibiotic proteins/peptides that can kill or alter bacteria, viruses, and fungi in the body.
Fever: known as pyrexia, is having a temp above the “normal” range due to an increases in the body’s temperature set-point. Research has demonstrated pyrexia assists the healing process in several important ways; increased mobility of leukocytes, enhanced leukocyte phagocytosis, increased proliferation of T-cells. Pyrexia is treated only when temperatures are dangerously high or to aid in comfort of rest.

35
Q

What is the role of IgE in allergies and development?

A

IgE Reaction occurs in the body if you have an allergy because your immune system overreacts to the allergen by producing antibodies called Immunoglobulin E (IgE). These antibodies travel to other cells in the body that release a variety of chemicals including histamines:
- causing an allergic reaction. This reaction usually causes symptoms in the nose, lungs, throat, or on the skin. Antihistamines can calm down reactions.

36
Q

What are the various allergic hypersenitivies?

A

Type 1:
- antibodies produced by the immune system
- if a person has an allergic reaction, their immune system overreacts by producing antibodies called Immunoglobulin E
- IgE plays an essential role in Type 1 which shows in various allergic reactions; allergic asthma, sinusitis, allergic rhinitis, food allergies, and atopic dermatitis
Type 2: (tissue specific)
- antibodies produced by the immune response binding to antigens on the patient’s own cell surface
- antigens recognized in this way may either be; intrinsic (self antigen, innately part of the patient’s cells) or extrinsic (absorbed onto the cells during exposure to some foreign antigen possible as part of infection with a pathogen)
Ex: ABO blood incompatibility
Type 3:
- occurs when there is accumulation of immune complexes (antigen-antibody complexes) that have not been adequately cleared by innate immune cells, giving rise to an inflammatory response and attraction of leukocytes
- such as reactions may progress to various immune complex diseases
- 3 common immune complex disease that can arise; lupus (an autoimmune disease in which the body’s immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissue in the body, rheumatoid arthritis (a long term autoimmune disorder that primarily effects joints resulting in warm, swollen, painful joints), fibromyalgia (an autoimmune disorder where chronic widespread pain and heightened pain response to pressure is experienced).
Type 4:
- rare, several days to develop
- not antibody mediated but cell mediated.
Type 5:
- Grave’s Disease (hypersecretion of thyroxine and triiodothyronine)
- Myasthenia Gravis (a long term neuromuscular disease tat leads to varying degrees of skeletal muscle weakness
- classic eye deviation pattern and a drooping eyelid displayed by a person with myasthenia gravis trying to open her eyes.

37
Q

Compare the Primary and Secondary Immune Responses.

A

The 2nd immune response if 10,000 to 100,000 times stronger than the primary immune response.
Innate Defense:
- surface barriers (skin and mucous membranes)
- internal defenses (phagocytes, fever, and natural killer cells)
Adaptive Defenses:
- humoral immunity (B cells)
- cellular immunity (T cells)

38
Q

What is Natural and Artificial Acquired Immunity?

A

Naturally Acquired Active Immunity: obtained when exposed with a pathogen.
Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity: obtained when antibodies are naturally obtained from another source
- in living organisms, this is almost always a form of immunity that can arise form development
- in mammals, antibodies that the mother has may be passed from the mother throughout the placenta or through breast milk
Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity: occurs when a person receives a vaccine of an immune serum containing antibodies
- this is sometimes referred to as receiving gamma globulins (gamma globulins are a class of globulin proteins with the most significant gamma globulins being the immunoglobulins (antibodies)
- NOTE some immunoglobulins are not gamma globulins and some gamma globulins are not immunoglobulins

39
Q

What is the role of the Pulmonary Circuit in blood? Associated with lungs.

A

Exchange of gases across the alveolar membrane which supplies oxygenated blood to the rest of the body and eliminates carbon dioxide from the circulation.

40
Q

How is the Respiratory System structurally designed?

A

Nostrils –> Nasal Cavity –> Nasopharynx –> Oropharynx –> Laryngopharynx –> Larynx –> Trachea –> Primary Bronchi –> Secondary Bronchi –> Tertiary Bronchi –> Bronchioles –> Alveoli (end loco.)

41
Q

What are the gas exchange properties in the lungs?

A

Occurs between alveolar air and the blood of capillaries.
Air that is breathed in will fill air sacs with oxygen-rich air.

42
Q

What is the role of Surfactant in the Respiratory System?

A

Reduces surface tension at the air-water interface in the alveoli, preventing collapse of alveoli during respiration.

43
Q

What are the dynamics of gas exchange in the blood; such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide?

A

Inhaled oxygen moves from the alveoli to the blood in the capillaries.
Carbon dioxide moves from the blood in the capillaries to the air in the alveoli.
Carbon monoxide can bind to hemoglobin preventing oxygen from being able to.

44
Q

What methods can be used to maintain breathing who have lost control of it?

A

Deep breathing
Breathing focus

45
Q

What are the subdivisions of the Pharynx and their roles in respiration?

A

Nasopharynx: uvula and up
- nasal cavity and conditions inspired air
- connects nose to respiratory system
Oropharynx: uvula and epiglottis
- voluntary and involuntary action of swallowing
Laryngopharynx: epiglottis and down
- composed of hyaline cartilage
- where food, water, and air pass through

46
Q

What is the structural design in a human noses? How has it developed over time?

A

Canopy shape.
- always upright and head
- designed to keep debris out

47
Q

How does the Stress Response act with the above system homeostasis?

A
  • can cause an individual to breathe harder leading to panic attacks
  • asthma or lung disease
  • releases adrenaline and cortisol that contributes to rapid breathing
48
Q

Who was Eitenne-Jules Marey?

A

French physiologist who is credited with the invention of the sphygmograph (blood pressure cuff).

49
Q

Who was Florence Rena Sabin?

A

Discovered the important link between blood vessel and lymphatic vessel genesis. Her work overturned the traditional explanation for development of the lymphatic system by proving that lymphatic vessels developed from the veins and grew out into tissues during embryonic growth.

50
Q

Who was Hans Buchner?

A

German bacteriologist who in the 1880s proposed that antibacterial proteins existed in blood. A major discovery in the understanding of immune responses.

51
Q

Who was Robert Koch?

A

A German physician and microbiologist who is often attributed with founding the modern approach to the study of infectious diseases. His work helped to establish the role of public health medicine.
Foundation of the CDC.

52
Q

What were the two research teams of the IgE Reaction?

A
  • Professor Kimishige Ishizaka and Professor Teruko Ishizaka
  • Professor Hans Bennich and Professor SGO Jonansson
53
Q

Who was Alexander Graham Bell?

A

Invented the respiratory jacket in 1882. This device was the precursor to the IRON Lung which was developed by Philip Drinker in the 1920s.

54
Q

Who was Phillip Drinker?

A

Designed the iron lung to help patients who lost the neuromuscular control of breathing.

55
Q

Why was the Iron Lung used?

A

Cases of polio prior to the development of the Salk vaccine.

56
Q

Who was Jonas Salk?

A

Developed the first polio vaccine which was inactivated.

Anatomy and Physiology (7 decks)

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