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BIOL 223 Lecture 2 > BIOL 223 Lecture final > Flashcards

BIOL 223 Lecture final Flashcards

1
Q

Transduction

A

How a stimulus is converted into an action potential

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2
Q

Free Nerve Endings

A

Simplest receptor type. Dendrites directly imbedded in tissue

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3
Q

Encapsulated Nerve Endings

A

Dendrites encased in connective tissue which enhances their performance

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4
Q

Specialized Receptor Cells

A

Respond to very specific stimuli. For example, photoreceptors in eyes. Only respond to light

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5
Q

Exteroceptor

A

Receptors located near an external stimulus such as in the dermis.

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6
Q

Interoceptor

A

Internal organs and tissue, blood pressure regulators

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7
Q

Proprioceptor

A

Located near motor functions, Muscle and tendons

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8
Q

Adaptation

A

Reduction of receptor sensitivity in the presence of a constant stimulus

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9
Q

Tonic Receptors

A

Always active and show little to no adaptation (e.g. pain)

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10
Q

Phasic Receptors

A

usually inactive and show burst of activity followed by rapid adaptation (e.g. Temperature)

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11
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

Detects chemicals. Blood Ph, Taste

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12
Q

Osmoreceptors

A

Detect Osmolarity changes in body fluids. Dehydration.

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13
Q

Nociceptors

A

Pain receptors. Stimulated by chemicals released from damaged tissue.

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14
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A

Respond to physical stimuli

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15
Q

Thermoreceptors

A

Heat receptors - temp above normal body temp. Cold receptors - temp below normal body temp. Extreme temperatures active nociceptors

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16
Q

Gustation - Taste

A

Provides information about foods and liquids consumed. Taste, texture

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17
Q

Filiform Papillae

A

Provide friction to move food around the mouth. No taste buds

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18
Q

Fungiform Papillae

A

Contain about 5 taste buds each

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19
Q

Vallate Papillae

A

Contain as many as 100 taste buds each. Majority of taste buds located here

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20
Q

Explain how receptor potentials are formed for the primary taste - Sweet

A

Bind to G-Protein coupled receptor

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21
Q

Explain how receptor potentials are formed for the primary taste - Salty

A

Na+ generate receptor potential

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22
Q

Explain how receptor potentials are formed for the primary taste - Sour

A

H+ generate receptor potential

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23
Q

Explain how receptor potentials are formed for the primary taste - Bitter and Umami

A

bind to G-protein coupled receptor

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24
Q

Discuss the taste projection pathway

A

Cranial Nerves VII Facial nerves, IX Glossopharyngeal, and X Vegas carry sensory information (1st order Neurons)
Synapses on 2nd order neurons in medulla oblongata
Synapse on 3rd order neurons in thalamus
information carried to the primary sensory complex.

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25
Q

Olfactory Sensory Neurons

A

Highly modified bipolar neurons. Detect dissolved chemicals as they interact with odorant-binding proteins

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26
Q

Describe the production of a generator potential for olfaction

A

begins with binding of odorant to G-Protein coupled receptor
Creates generator potential (depolarization)
Synapse with neurons in olfactory bulb
Olfactory cortex- temporal lobe
limbic system
Hypothalamus

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27
Q

External Ear Components

A

Auricle (Pinna), Tympanic Membrane (ear drum), Ceruminous Glands

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28
Q

Auricle (Pinna)

A

Surrounds and protects auditory canal

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29
Q

Tympanic Membrane (ear drum)

A

Thin, Semitransparent sheet. At end of external acoustic meatus. Separates external ear from middle ear

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30
Q

Ceruminous Glands

A

Trap debris. Maintain playability of tympanic membrane

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31
Q

Middle Ear Components

A

Air-filled chamber (tympanic cavity of temporal bone), Communicates with nasopharynx through auditory tube, Contains three tiny ear bones (auditory ossicles)

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32
Q

Malleus (hammer)

A

Articulates with tympanic membrane

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33
Q

Incus (anvil)

A

Inbetween Malleus and Stapes

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34
Q

Stapes (stirrup)

A

Articulates with the oval window

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35
Q

Inner Ear Components

A

Bony labyrinth surrounds and protects membranous labyrinth, Perilymph flows between the two labyrinths, Endolymph is within membranous labyrinth

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36
Q

Vestibule

A

Inner Ear. Encloses saccule and utricle, Receptors detect gravity and linear acceleration

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37
Q

Semicircular canals

A

Inner Ear. Three. Receptors stimulated by rotation of head.

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38
Q

Cochlea

A

Contains cochlear duct of membranous labyrinth, Receptors provide sense of hearing

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39
Q

Explain the process of hearing

A

Sound waves are converted into mechanical movements by vibration of tympanic membrane, Auditory ossicles conduct vibrations to internal ear, Vibrations are converted to pressure waves in fluid which are detected by hair cells in the cochlear duct, Information is sent to auditory cortex in brain

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40
Q

Equilibrium

A

State of physical balance

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41
Q

Structures associated with Equilibrium

A

Sensations provided by receptors of vestibular complex (vestibule and semicircular canals)
Utricle and Saccule - sense head position
Semicircular canals - sense head movement

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42
Q

Utricle & Saccule

A

Hair cells provide sensations of position and linear movement

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43
Q

Maculae

A

Macula of utricle senses horizontal movement
Macula of saccule senses vertical movement

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44
Q

Otoliths

A

Densely packed calcium carbonate crystals on surface of gelatinous mass

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45
Q

Structure of the semicircular canals

A

Connects with vestibule at the ampulla
hair cells positioned within ampullary cupula

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46
Q

Nociceptors

A

receptors for pain. Free nerve endings with large receptive fields
Neurotransmitters are glutamate and or substance P

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47
Q

Fast Pain

A

Deep Cuts, Injections
Signal sent to the CNS rapidly and to the primary somatosensory cortex for conscious perception

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48
Q

Slow Pain

A

Burning or aching pain
Signal Sent more slowly
vague awareness of pain but not localized

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49
Q

receptors for temperature

A

Free nerve endings
Sensations are conducted along same pathways that carry pain sensations
sent to reticular formation, thalamus, and (to a lesser extent) the primary somatosensory cortex

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50
Q

mechanoreceptors

A

Sensitive to physical stimuli that distort their plasma membranes
Membranes contain mechanically gated ion channels that open or close in responce to the physical distortion:
Pacinian corpuscles
Meissner’s corpuscles

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51
Q

chemoreceptors

A

Respond to water - and lipid-soluble substances that are dissolved in body fluids
Exhibit peripheral adaptation in seconds
Monitor pH, carbon dioxide, and oxygen levels in arterial blood in internal carotid arteries and the aortic arch

52
Q

Eyelids

A

A continuation of skin
Blinking keeps surface of eye lubricated and clean
Palpebral fissure
Space between eyelids

53
Q

Eyelashes

A

protective, prevent debris making contact with eye

54
Q

Tarsal glands

A

Secrete lipid-rich product that helps keep eyelids from sticking together

55
Q

Lacrimal caruncle

A

mass of soft tissue at medial angle of eye

56
Q

Conjunctiva

A

Mucous membrane covered by an epithelium
Palpebral conjunctiva covers inner surface of eyelids
Bulbar conjunctiva covers anterior surface of eye

57
Q

Conjunctivitis (pink eye)

A

Inflammation of conjunctiva

58
Q

Lacrimal Apparatus

A

Produces, distributes, and removes tears

59
Q

Lacrimal gland (tear gland)

A

Produces tears that bathe conjunctival surfaces
Secretions contain lysozyme (antibacterial enzyme)

60
Q

Fornix

A

Pocket where palpebral conjunctiva joins bulbar conjunctiva
receives 10-12 ducts from lacrimal gland

61
Q

Describe how the pupillary diameter is changed

A

When the pupillae dilator contracts the pupil gets bigger. Decreased light intensity allows more light into eye..
when the sphincter pupillae contracts the pupil gets smaller. Increased light intensity less light in.

62
Q

Rods

A

Photoreceptors. Modified epithelial cells.
Do not discriminate colors
Highly sensitive to light (active in dark)

63
Q

Cones

A

Photoreceptors. Modified epithelial cells.
Provide color vision and acuity
Densely clustered in macula
Especially in fovea centralis

64
Q

Bipolar cells in Eye

A

Synapse with rods and cones 1st order neurons

65
Q

Ganglion cells in Eye

A

Synapse with bipolar cells 2nd order neurons

66
Q

Explain photoreception

A

Absorption of a photon changes retinal from 11 cis to 11-trans form which activates the opsin
Opsin activates transducin (G-protein)
Which activates phosphodiesterrase (PDE)
PDE reduces levels of cyclic GMP
Chemically gated sodium ion channels close
Dark Current is reduced
Rate of neurotransmitter release declines
Rods
Detect presence or absence of photons
Cones
Provide information about wavelengths of photons
Both rods and cones have
inner segment containing major organelles
outer segment with membranous discs contains visual pigments

67
Q

Describe the process of photoreceptor recovery after simulation

A

Bleaching - After absorbing a photon
Rhodopsin splits into retinal and opsin
11-trans retinal is converted back to 11-cis retinal
Requires ATP
Retinal then recombines with opsin

68
Q

Describe the different neurons involved in a general sensory pathway

A

First-order neuron - sensory neuron that delivers sensation to cns
Second-order neuron - interneuron in spinal cord or brainstem that receives information from first order neuron
Crosses to opposite sied of CNS decussation
Third-Order Neuron - Neruon in thalamus that must receive information from second-order neuron

69
Q

Function - Spinothalamic Pathway

A

Carries sensations of crude touch, pressure, pain, and temperature

First-order neurons enter spinal cord and synapse within posterior horns
Second-order neurons cross to opposite side of spinal cord before ascending
Third-order neurons in thalamus

70
Q

Abnormalities - Spinothalamic Pathway

A

Phantom Limb Syndrome - Painful sensations that are not produced where they are perceived to originate

Referred Pain - Feeling pain in an uninjured part of body when pain originates at another location. Visceral pain can manifest as pain in body surface

71
Q

Function - Dorsal Column Pathway

A

Carries sensations of fine touch, vibration, pressure, and proprioception

First-Order neuron enter and synapse of second-order neurons in the posterior columns
Second-order neurons decussate
Synapse with third-order neurons in the thalamus

72
Q

Function - Spinocerebellar

A

Conveys information about positions of muscle, tendons, and joints from spinal cord to cerebellum
This information does not reach our awareness

73
Q

visceral sensory pathways

A

Cranial nerves V, VII, IX, and X
Spinal Nerves T1-L2 and S2-S4
Solitary nucleus
Large nucleus on each side of medulla oblongata
Major processing and sorting center for visceral sensory information
Extensive connections with cardiovascular and respiratory centers and reticular formation

74
Q

Auditory Pathway

A

Afferent fibers of sensory neurons in spiral ganglion form cochlear nerve
Axons enter medulla oblongata and synapse at cochlear nucleus
information ascends to pons and midbrain
midbrain coordinates unconscious motor responses
Ascending auditory sensations synapse in the thalamus
projection fingers deliver information to auditory cortex of temporal lobe

75
Q

Central Processing - Visual Information

A

Axons from ganglion cells converge on optic disc
Proceed toward diencephalon as optic nerve (II)
two optic nerves reach diencephalon after partial crossover at optic chiasm
Information travel to visual cortex in occipital lobe
information travels to the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus

76
Q

Field of Vision

A

The combined visual images from left and right eyes

77
Q

Depth Perception

A

obtained by comparing relative positions of objects between images received from both eyes

78
Q

Explain why image formation on the retina upside down and left-right reversed

A

The light form the top of the object ends up lower retina surface.
light doesn’t arrive in eye directly

79
Q

Prefrontal Areas - Executive functions

A

includes working memory and attention

80
Q

Primary motor cortex

A

Precentral gyrus
motor homunculus
functional map of primary motor cortex
Corresponds with specific regions of the body
indicates the degree of fine motor control available

81
Q

major neurons of the somatic motor pathways

A

Upper motor neuron
Lower motor neuron - innervates a single motor unit in a skeletal muscle

82
Q

Function - Corticospinal Pathway

A

Provides voluntary control over skeletal muscles

83
Q

Structure - Corticospinal Pathway

A

Begins at primary motor cortex
Axons descend into brainstem and spinal cord
Synapses on lower motor neurons that control skeletal muscles

84
Q

Reflex

A

Rapid, Automatic responses to specific stimuli
Basic building blocks of neural function
A specific reflex produces the same motor response each time

85
Q

List the different components of a reflex arc

A

Sensory receptor
Sensory neuron
information processing in CNS
motor neuron
Effector

86
Q

Innate Reflexes

A

Basic neural reflexes formed before birth
genetically programmed
Withdrawal, Chewing, Visual Tracking

87
Q

Acquired reflexes

A

Rapid, automatic learned motor patterns
repetition enhances them
Breaking a car in an emergency.

88
Q

Monosynaptic Reflex

A

Sensory neuron synapses directly with motor neuron, fast response

89
Q

Polysynaptic Reflex

A

At least one interneuron between sensory neuron and motor neuron; most common
Slower response; delta increase with number of synapses involved

90
Q

List the steps in a stretch reflex (using the patellar reflex as an example)

A

Monosynaptic
Regulates skeletal muscle length throughout the body
very rapid
Patellar Reflex - Kick your leg when struck
1 stimulus = muscle stretching
2 distortion of receptor sends action potential through sensory neurons
3 sensory neuron synapses with motor neurons in spinal cord
4 motor neurons send signals to motor units; triggers reflexive contraction of stretched muscle

91
Q

withdrawal reflexes (with an example)

A

Move body part away from stimulus (pain or pressure)
Strength and extent of response depends on intensity and location of stimulus
Touch a hot pan remove hand from hot pan

92
Q

reciprocal inhibition

A

For flexor reflex to work, stretch reflex of antagonistic (extensor) Muscles must be inhibited (reciprocal inhibition) by interneurons in spinal cord.

93
Q

crossed extensor reflex (with an example)

A

Coordinated with flexor reflex. Step on something sharp, before flexor reflex can lift injured foot, crossed extensor reflex straightens opposite limb to receive body weight, then flexor reflex can occur. maintained by reverberating circuits

94
Q

Sympathetic division

A

Fight or flight. Increases alertness, metabolic rate, and muscular abilities

95
Q

Parasympathetic division

A

Rest and digest. Conserves energy and maintains resting metabolic rate

96
Q

Increased Sympathetic Activity Body Reactions

A
  1. Heightened mental alertness
  2. Increased metabolic rate
  3. reduced digestive and urinary functions
  4. activation of energy reserves
  5. increased respiratory rate and dilation of respiratory passageways
  6. increased heart rate and blood pressure
  7. activation of sweat glands
97
Q

Increased Parasympathetic Activity Body Reactions

A
  1. Decreased metabolic rate
  2. decreased heart rate and blood pressure
  3. increased secretion by salivary and digestive glands
  4. increased motility and blood flow in digestive tract
  5. stimulation of urination and defecation
98
Q

Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division

A

Short preganglionic fingers, in the thoracic and lumbar segments of spinal cord
Preganglionic (Central) neurons located between segments T1 and L2
Cell bodies in lateral horns and azons exit through anterior roots.
Ganglionic neurons in ganglia near spinal cord
long postganglionic fibers to target organs

99
Q

Sympathetic chain ganglia

A

On either side of vertebral column. One preganglionic fiber synapses on many ganglionic neurons. Fibers interconnect sympathetic chain ganglia, making the chain look like a string of pearls. Each ganglion innervates a particular body organ or group of organs. Superior cervical and paravertebral ganglia if target superior or inferior to segment the preganglionic fiber emerges from

100
Q

Splanchnic nerves

A

Do not synapse in the chain ganglia.

Fibers continue as the greater or lesser splanchnic nerves

Synapse in collateral ganglia

101
Q

Collateral ganglia

A

Anterior to vertebral bodies
Contain ganglionic neurons that innervate abdominopelvic tissues and viscera
Celiac ganglion
Superior mesenteric ganglion
Inferior mesenteric ganglion

102
Q

Adrenal medullae

A

Center of each adrenal gland
Modified sympathetic ganglion
when stimulated, they release neurotransmitters into blood stream

103
Q

Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division

A

Long preganglionic fibers in brainstem and sacral segments of spinal cord (S2-S4)
Ganglionic neurons in peripheral ganglia within or adjacent to target organs
short postganglionic fingers in or near target organs
Terminal ganglia and Intramural ganglia

104
Q

List the cranial nerves that have parasympathetic functions and what those functions are

A

Parasympathetic preganglionic fibers leave brain in cranial nerves
II (Oculomotor)
VII (Facial)
IX (glossopharyngeal)
X (vagus) - Provides 75 percent of all parasympathetic outflow

105
Q

Describe the cholinergic system including locations of nicotinic cholinergic and muscarinic cholinergic receptors

A

Preganglionic fibers release acetylcholine
Ganglionic neurons have cholinergic receptors: Nicotinic and Muscarinic
Nicotinic cholinergic receptors are ligand-gated ion channels
Stimulated by nicotine
Muscarinic cholinergic receptors are G protein-coupled receptors
stimulated by muscarine

106
Q

Describe the adrenergic system

A

Adrenergic system
Preganglionic fibers release norepinephrine or epinephrine

107
Q

alpha-1

A

More common type
found primarily in smooth muscle cells
stimulation has excitatory effect

108
Q

alpha-2 - probably not on test

A

Found of preganglionic sympathetic neurons
Stimulation has an inhibitory effect
Coordinates activities of ANS

109
Q

beta-1

A

Located on membrane of cells in skeletal muscles, lungs, heart, liver, etc.
Stimulation increases metabolic activity

110
Q

beta-2

A

Located on membrane of cells in skeletal muscles, lungs, heart, liver, etc.
Stimulation triggers relaxation of smooth muscles along respiratory tract

111
Q

beta-3

A

Located on membrane of cells in skeletal muscles, lungs, heart, liver, etc.
stimulation leads to lipolysis

112
Q

Explain why many visceral senses do not reach conscious perception

A

When a third-order neuron is not involved or thalamus does not allow the stimulation to enter the brain. Baroreceptors that monitor blood volume and blood pressure

113
Q

Describe referred pain

A

Visceral pain that is perceived to be superficial pain
When you have a heart attack your left arm hurts is an example
Kidney stone you say lower back hurts not kidney

114
Q

Short reflexes

A

Completely peripheral
Autonomic reflexes
Vagus nerve response to stretch of the stomach

115
Q

Long reflexes

A

Include the CNS
Somatic reflexes
Autonomic reflexes

116
Q

Describe dual innervation with examples

A

Most vital organs are innervated by both divisions of ANS
Two divisions commonly have opposing effects
Parasympathetic postganglionic fibers travel by cranial nerves to peripheral destinations
Sympathetic innervation reaches same structures
Control of Heart rate is an example

117
Q

Control of Heart rate is an example of Dual Innervation. Elaborate

A

Muscarinic cholinergic receptors - Parasympathetic division - Lowers heart rate
Beta 1-adrenergic receptors - Sympathetic division- Increase heart rate

118
Q

Control of Pupillary Diameter is an example of Dual Innervation. Elaborate

A

Muscarinic Cholinergic receptors located on circular fingers of the iris- Parasympathetic division- Pupillary Constriction

Alpha-adrenergic receptors located on the radial fibers of the iris- Sympathetic division- Pupillary dilation

119
Q

Sympathetic control of blood vessel diameter

A

NE is released from sympathetic fibers at smooth muscles cells in blood vessel walls
Increasing or decreasing the rate of action potential firing changes the diameter of the blood vessel

120
Q

Describe autonomic tone

A

Resting level activity of ANS
Because nerves maintain background level of activity the can increase or decrease activity
provides greater range of control
Significan where dual innervation occurs
More important where it does not occur

121
Q

Hypothalamus - Integration

A

Regulates autonomic and endocrine function
In the pupillary light reflexes triggers either a sympathetic (not enough light) or parasympathetic (too much light) response
Two tracts that connect hypothalamus with major parasympathetic nuclei in the brain stem and preganglionic neurons of the thoracolumbar spinal cord

122
Q

Amygdala

A

Group of nuclei in the limbic lobe of the temporal lobe
Emotional Responses
Memory
Strong connection with the hypothalamus
Fell afraid signal the hypothalamus to trigger a sympathetic response (fight or flight)

123
Q

Medulla Oblongata

A

Cardiovascular center
Cardiac acceleratory center - Increase heart rate
Cardiac inhibitory center - Decrease heart rate

124
Q

Sympathomimetic Drugs

A

Mimic the effects of the sympathetic division

Phenylephrine - Alpha-1 Adrenergic agonist
Used to dilate bronchioles and often paired with other drugs
for asthma
used to dilate pupils

pseudoephedrine

125
Q

Sympatholytic Drugs

A

Interfere with sympathetic function

Beta-Blockers commonly used to treat cardiovascular disease such as high blood pressure - Propranolol

Alpha-Agonist used to treat hypertension and anxiety - Clonidine

126
Q

Parasympathomimetic

A

Mimic the effects of the parasympathetic division, increase parasympathetic tone

Nicotine, Muscarine,

Pilocarpine - Nonspecific muscarinic agonist
Constricts Pupil
Can be used after an eye exam or for treatment of glaucoma

127
Q

Parasympatholytic

A

Antagonistic to parasympathetic division, decrease parasympathetic tone

Atropine - dilates pupils
Muscarinic antagonist

Scopolamine - motion sickness
Muscarinic antagonist

BIOL 223 Lecture 2 (3 decks)

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