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Biochemistry > Bioenergetics > Flashcards

Bioenergetics Flashcards

1
Q

is the study of the transformation, distribution, and utilization of energy by living organisms.

A

Bioenergetics

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2
Q

Bioenergetics includes:

A

– radiant energy of sunlight used in photosynthesis
– electrical energy of nerve impulses
– mechanical energy of muscle contractions

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3
Q

The bioenergetics of a cell can be compared to the energetics of a

A

Manufacturing plant

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4
Q

Manufacturing plant energetics

A
  • Energy is delivered as electricity, coal, oil, gas, etc.
  • Electricity, coal, oil, gas, etc., is converted to mechanical energy
  • Mechanical energy converts raw materials into products
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5
Q

Animal cell bioenergetics

A
  • Energy is delivered as reduced carbon atoms
  • Energy in reduced carbon atoms is converted to high-energy phosphate bonds
  • High-energy phosphate bonds are used to do the work of the cell
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6
Q

Plant cell bioenergetics

A
  • Energy is delivered as sunlight
  • Sunlight is converted to chemical energy
  • High-energy phosphate bonds are used to do the work of the cell
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7
Q

The sum of all chemical reactions that occur within a living organism is defined as

A

Metabolism

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8
Q

Metabolism can be subdivided into two contrasting categories:

A
  1. Anabolism
  2. Catabolism
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9
Q

is the process by which simple substances are synthesized (built up) into complex substances.

A

Anabolism

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10
Q

usually involve carbon reduction and consume cellular energy.

A

Anabolic reactions

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11
Q

is the process by which complex substances are broken down into simpler substances.

A

Catabolism

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12
Q

usually involve carbon oxidation and produce energy for the cell.

A

Catabolic reactions

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13
Q

will provide the source of energy we need for all our activities such as thinking, moving, breathing, walking, talking, etc.

A

Metabolism

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14
Q

is also needed for many of the cellular processes such as protein synthesis, DNA replication, RNA transcription and transport across the membrane, etc.

A

Energy

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15
Q

Usually energy is released in these reactions

A

Catabolism

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16
Q

Usually require energy

A

Anabolism

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17
Q

Series of consecutive biochemical reactions used to convert a starting material into an end product

A

Metabolic pathway

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18
Q

Two types of metabolic pathways

A

Linear
Cyclic

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19
Q

The major pathways for all forms of life are similar:

A

Linear pathway: A B C D
Cyclic pathway: A B D C

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20
Q

Cells segregate many of their metabolic reactions into specific, subcellular locations.

A

Procaryotes
Eucaryotes

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21
Q

are cells WITHOUT internal membrane-bound bodies.

A

Procaryotes

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22
Q

The anabolic processes of DNA and RNA synthesis in these cells are localized in the nuclear material, whereas most other metabolic reactions are spread throughout the cytoplasm

A

Procaryotes

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23
Q

Contain internal, membrane-bound bodies called ORGANELLES

A

Eucaryotes

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24
Q

It is within the organelles that many specific metabolic processes occur

A

Eukaryotes

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25
Q

Most of the DNA and RNA syntheses are localized in the NUCLEUS

A

Eukaryotic cell

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26
Q

Anabolism of proteins takes place in the RIBOSOMES, whereas that of carbohydrates and lipids occurs primarily in the cytoplasm

A

Eukaryotic cell

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27
Q

There are a variety of specialized ____________ organelles within a eukaryotic cell

A

Catabolic

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28
Q

Digestive enzymes

A

Lysosome

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29
Q

Provides most of the energy for a cell

A

Mitochondria

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30
Q

consume most of the oxygen that is inhaled and produce most of the carbon dioxide that is exhaled by the lungs.

A

Mitochondria

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31
Q

knowledge cell structure is essential to the understanding of

A

Metabolism

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32
Q

Single compartment organism

A

Prokaryotic cell

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33
Q

No nucleus – found only in bacteria

A

Prokaryotic cell

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34
Q

Single circular DNA molecule present near center cell called NUCLEOID

A

Prokaryotic cell

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35
Q

Multi-compartment cell

A

Eukaryotic cell

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36
Q

DNA is present in the membrane enclosed NUCLEUS

A

Eukaryotic cell

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37
Q

Cell is compartmentalized into cellular ORGANELLES

A

Eukaryotic cell

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38
Q

~1000 times larger than bacterial cells

A

Eukaryotic cell

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39
Q

DNA replication and RNA synthesis

A

Nucleus

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40
Q

Cellular boundary

A

Plasma membrane

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41
Q

The WATER-BASED material of a eukaryotic cell

A

Cytoplasm

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42
Q

Generate most of the energy needed for cell

A

Mitochondria

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43
Q

Contain HYDROLYTIC ENZYMES needed for cell rebuilding, repair, and degradation

A

Lysosome

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44
Q

Sites for protein synthesis

A

Ribosomes

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45
Q

Mitochondria: ____________: Permeable to small molecules: 50% lipid, 50% protein

A

Outer membrane

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46
Q

Mitochondria: ____________: Highly permeable to most substances: 20% lipid, 80% protein

A

Inner membrane

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47
Q

folded to increase surface area

A

Inner membrane

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48
Q

Synthesis of ATP occurs

A

Mitochondria

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49
Q

Important Intermediate Compounds in Metabolic Pathways

A

Adenosine Phosphates (AMP, ADP, ATP, cAMP)

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50
Q

Cyclic structure of phosphate

A

Cyclic monophosphate (cAMP)

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51
Q

Structural component fo RNA

A

Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)

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52
Q

Key components of metabolic pathways

A

Adenosine diphosphate
Adenosine triphosphate

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53
Q

Phosphate groups are connected to __________________ by strained bonds which require less than normal energy to hydrolyze them

A

Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)

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54
Q

ATP + H2O ➡️ ADP + PO43- + Energy
ADP + H2O ➡️ AMP + PO43- + Energy

A

Overall Reaction: ATP + 2H2O ➡️ AMP + 2 PO43- + Energy

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55
Q

The net energy produced in these reactions is used for

A

Cellular reactions

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56
Q

In cellular reactions ____ functions as both a source of a PHOSPHATE GROUP and a source of ENERGY.

A

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

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57
Q

Involved in carbohydrate metabolism

A

Uridine triphosphate (UTP)

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58
Q

Involved in protein and carbohydrate metabolism

A

Guanosine triphosphate (GTP)

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59
Q

involved in lipid metabolism

A

Cytidine triphosphate (CTP)

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60
Q

FAD

A

Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide

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61
Q

A coenzyme required in numerous metabolic REDOX reactions

A

FAD

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62
Q

is the ACTIVE form - accepts and donates electrons

A

Flavin subunit

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63
Q

is a reduced form of ribose sugar

A

Ribitol

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64
Q

A typical cellular reaction in which FAD serves as oxidizing agent involves conversion of an

A

Alkane to an alkene

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65
Q

is oxidized form

A

FAD

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66
Q

is reduced form

A

FADH2

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67
Q

In enzyme reactions FAD goes back and forth (equilibrium)

A

from oxidized to reduced form

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68
Q

NAD+: coenzyme

A

NADH is reduced form

69
Q

NAD+ 3 subunit structure

A

Nicotinamide - ribose - ADP

70
Q

NAD+ 6 subunit structure

A

Nicotinamide - ribose - phosphate - phosphate - ribose - adenine

71
Q

A typical cellular reaction in which NAD+ serves as the oxidizing agent is the oxidation of a

A

Secondary alcohol to give a ketone

72
Q

A derivative of vitamin b

A

Coenzyme A

73
Q

Coenzyme A 3 subunit structure

A

2-Aminoethanethiol - pantothenic acid - phosphorylated ADP

74
Q

Coenzyme A 6 subunit structure

A

2-Aminoethanethiol - pantothenic acid - phosphate - phosphate - phosphorylated ribose - adenine

75
Q

Active form of coenzyme A is the __________________ in the ethanethiol subunit of the coenzyme

A

Sulfhydryl group (-SH group)

76
Q

Acetylated

A

Acetyl-CoA

77
Q

Metabolic intermediate compounds can be classified into three groups based on their functions

A
  1. Intermediates for the storage of energy and transfer of PHOSPHATE GROUPS
  2. Intermediates for the transfer of ELECTRONS in metabolic redox reactions
  3. Intermediates for the transfer of ACETYL GROUPS
78
Q

Several phosphate containing compounds found in metabolic pathways are known as

A

High energy compounds

79
Q

High energy compounds have greater _________________ than a typical compound

A

Free energy of hydrolysis

79
Q

They contain at least one REACTIVE BOND – called STRAINED BOND

A

High energy compounds

80
Q

Energy to break these bonds is less than a normal bond – __________ of high energy compounds give more energy than normal compounds

A

Hydrolysis

81
Q

More ________ the free energy of hydrolysis, greater the bond strain

A

Negative

82
Q

Typically the free energy release is greater than ______________ (indicative of bond strain)

A

6.0 kcal/mole

83
Q

Strained bonds are represented by sign

A

~ (squiggle bond)

84
Q

are organelles found in HIGHER PLANTS and contain an electron-transport system that is responsible for the anabolic redox reactions in photosynthesis.

A

Chloroplasts

85
Q

often called the “powerhouses” of the cell, are the sites for most of the catabolic redox reactions.

A

Mitochondria

86
Q

To move electrons from one place to
another, the cell uses a set of

A

Redox coenzymes

87
Q

act as temporary storage places for electrons.

A

Redox coenzymes

88
Q

A very important function of these redox
coenzymes is to carry electrons to the

A

mitochondrial electron-transport system

89
Q

As the coenzymes are oxidized, molecular oxygen is

A

Reduced

90
Q

O2

A

Molecular oxygen

91
Q

plays a critical role in energy production.

A

Molecular oxygen (O2)

92
Q

Acts as the FINAL RECEPTACLE for electrons in the mitochondrial electron-transport system.

A

Molecular oxygen (O2)

93
Q

is the best way to produce energy for most cells.

A

Aerobic metabolism

94
Q

Some REDUCED products of molecular oxygen (O2) are

A

dangerous

95
Q

ROS

A

Reactive Oxygen Species

96
Q

can react with and destroy many vital cell molecules

A

Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)

97
Q

A 2-electron redox reaction occurs and makes

A

Hydrogen peroxide

98
Q

Most dangerous ROS are formed if redox
reactions involve only

A

1 electron

99
Q

is formed when molecular oxygen is
reduced with one electron, O2-

A

Superoxide

100
Q

The MOST DANGEROUS ROS is the ________________, a neutral hydroxide (OH) that can react with almost anything in the cell.

A

Hydroxyl radical

101
Q

Cells need an ENERGY DELIVERY SYSTEM. Most cellular energy is produced in the MITOCHONDRIA, but this energy must be transported throughout the cell. Such a delivery system must carry relatively LARGE AMOUNTS OF ENERGY and be easily accessible to cellular reactions

A

High-energy phosphate bonds

102
Q

Phosphate Anhydride Bond

A

Phosphoanhydride bond

103
Q

When the phosphoanhydride bond is broken, the phosphates separate rapidly, and __________ is released

A

Energy

104
Q

is an important component of the nucleotide triphosphates, the most
important of which is adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).

A

Phosphate anhydride bond

105
Q

plays an important role in all cells

A

ATP

106
Q

It functions by storing and transporting the energy in its high-energy phosphate bonds to the places in the cell where energy is needed.

A

ATP

106
Q

s a common intermediary in energy metabolism.

A

ATP

107
Q

Phosphorylation

A

Energy conversion

108
Q

Energy is stored in PHOSPHATE ANHYDRIDE BONDS through two biological processes:

A
  1. Substrate-level phosphorylation
  2. Oxidative phosphorylation
109
Q

is the process whereby ENERGY DERIVED FROM OXIDATION is used to form high-energy phosphate bonds on various biochemical molecules (substrates).

A

Substrate-level phosphorylation

110
Q

Substrate-level phosphorylation is found most commonly in the CATABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES – that is,

A

Glycolysis

111
Q

Under _______________, substrate-
level phosphorylation may be the cell’s
principal means of forming ATP.

A

Anaerobic conditions

112
Q

Is a process that directly uses ENERGY FROM REDOX REACTIONS to form ATP.

A

Oxidative phosphorylation

113
Q

This process occurs in the mitochondria and depends on the mitochondrial electron-transport system.

A

Oxidative phosphorylation

114
Q

is the process by which energy from the sun is CONVERTED TO CHEMICAL ENERGY that is stored in chemical bonds.

A

Photosynthesis

115
Q

performed by a variety of organisms, both EUKARYOTIC and PROKARYOTIC

A

Photosynthesis

116
Q

causes the electrons to become more energetic, so that they can reduce NADP+.

A

Light energy

117
Q

The breakdown of glucose into two pyruvic acid molecules

A

Glycolysis

118
Q

is the formation of glycogen from glucose

A

Glycogenesis

119
Q

is the breakdown of glycogen to glucose

A

Glycogenolysis

120
Q

is the formation of glucose from amino acids and glycerol

A

Gluconeogenesis

121
Q

is the formation of lipids from glucose and amino acids

A

Lipogenesis

122
Q

The first phase is glycolysis, which produces

A

2 ATP
2 NADH
2 Pyruvic acid molecules

123
Q

The second phase is the conversion of theTWO PYRUVIC ACID molecules into TWO MOLECULES OF ACETYL-CoA. These reactions also produce

A

2 NADH
2 Carbon dioxide molecules

124
Q

The third phase is the citric acid cycle, which produces

A

2 ATP
6 NADH
2 FADH2
4 carbon dioxide molecules

125
Q

The fourth phase is the electron-transport chain. The high-energy electron-transport chain and are used in the synthesis of

A

ATP and water

126
Q

Stage 1

A

Digestion of carbohydrates

127
Q

Stage 2

A

Glycolysis

128
Q

Begins in the mouth where salivary amylase BREAKS DOWN POLYSACCHARIDES to smaller polysaccharides (dextrins), maltose, and some glucose.

A

Stage 1: Digestion of carbohydrates

129
Q

Continues in the small intestine where pancreatic amylase HYDROLYZES DEXTRINS to maltose and glucose.

A

Stage 1: Digestion of carbohydrates

130
Q

Hydrolyzes maltose, lactose, and sucrose to MONOSACCHARIDES, mostly glucose, which enter the bloodstream for transport to the cells.

A

Stage 1: Digestion of.carbohydrates

131
Q

Glucose + Glucose

A

Maltose

132
Q

Galactose + Glucose

A

Lactose

133
Q

Glucose + Fructose

A

Sucrose

134
Q

Is a metabolic pathway that uses glucose, a digestion product.

A

Glycolysis

135
Q

Degrades six-carbon glucose molecules to three-carbon pyruvate molecules

A

Glycolysis

136
Q

Is an anaerobic (no oxygen) process.

A

Glycolysis

137
Q

In reactions 1-5 of glycolysis

A

Glycolysis: energy-investment

138
Q

In reactions 6-10 of glycolysis

A

Glycolysis-energy production

139
Q

In reactions 1-5 of glycolysis,

A
  • Energy is required to ADD PHOSPHATE GROUPS to glucose
140
Q

In reactions 1-5 of glycolysis,

A

Glucose is CONVERTED to 2 THREE-CARBON molecules

141
Q

Glycolysis: energy investment (enzyme)

A
  1. Hexokinase
  2. Phosphoglucoisomerase
  3. Phosphofructokinase
  4. Fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate aldolase
  5. Triosephosphate isomerase
142
Q

Glycolysis: energy production (enzyme)

A
  1. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate-dehydrogenase
  2. Phosphoglycerate kinase
  3. Phosphoglycerate mutase
  4. Enolase
  5. Pyruvate kinase
143
Q

In reactions 6-10 of glycolysis, energy is generated as

A
  • Sugar phosphate are CLEAVED TO TRIOSE phosphates
144
Q

In reactions 6-10 of glycolysis, energy is generated as

A

4 ATP molecules are PRODUCED

145
Q

add phosphate to GLUCOSE and FUCTOSE-6-PHOSPHATE.

A

2 ATP

146
Q

are formed in energy-generation by direct transfers of phosphate groups to four ADP

A

4 ATP

147
Q

There is a NET GAIN of

A

2 ATP
2 NADH

148
Q

Glycolysis is regulated by

A

3 enzymes

149
Q

Hexokinase is inhibited by high levels of GLUCOSE-6-PHOSPHATE, which prevents the phosphorylation of glucose

A

Reaction 1

150
Q

Phosphofructokinase, an ALLOSTERIC ENZYME, is inhibited by high levels of ATP and activated by high levels of ADP and AMP.

A

Reaction 3

151
Q

Pyruvate kinase, another ALLOSTERIC ENZYME is inhibited by high levels of ATP or acetyl CoA.

A

Reaction 10

152
Q

In glycolysis, what compound provide phosphate groups for the production of ATP?

A

Reaction 7
Reaction 10

153
Q

Pyruvate

A

Aerobic conditions
Anaerobic conditions

154
Q

Pyruvate: aerobic conditions (oxygen present)

A

Three-carbon pyruvate is DECARBOXYLATED

155
Q

Pyruvate: aerobic conditions (oxygen present)

A

Two-carbon acetyl CoA and CO2 are PRODUCED

156
Q

Pyruvate: anaerobic conditions (without oxygen)

A

Pyruvate is REDUCED to lactate

157
Q

Pyruvate: anaerobic conditions (without oxygen)

A

NADH oxidizes to NAD+ allowing glycolysis to continue.

158
Q

After exercise, a person breathes heavily to repay the oxygen debt and reform PYRUVATE in the

A

Liver

159
Q

During strenuous exercise,

A
  • Oxygen in the muscles is DEPLETED
  • Anaerobic conditions are PRODUCED
  • Lactate ACCUMULATES
  • Muscle TIRE and become PAINFUL
160
Q

Occurs in ANAEROBIC microorganisms such as YEAST.

A

Fermentation

161
Q

Decarboxylates pyruvate to ACETALDEHYDE, which is reduced to ETHANOL.

A

Fermentation

162
Q

Regenerates NAD+ to continue glycolysis

A

Fermentation

163
Q

Produced during anaerobic conditions

A

Lactate

164
Q

Reaction series that converts glucose to pyruvate

A

Glycolysis

165
Q

Metabolic reactions that break down large molecules to smaller molecules + energy.

A

Catabolic reactions

166
Q

Substances that remove or add H atoms in oxidation and reduction reactions.

A

Coenzymes

167
Q
A

Biochemistry (6 decks)

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