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Module 4- biodiversity, evolution and disease > Biodiversity > Flashcards

Biodiversity Flashcards

1
Q

Name 2 types of conservation

A
  • in situ

- ex situ

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2
Q

Is conservation active or passive

A

active- involves active management to maintain habitats and the species that live in those habitats- aim is to enable endangered species to survive and maintain biodiversity

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3
Q

what is conservation in situ

A
  • conserving species in their natural habitat- involves attempting to minimise the human impact on the natural environment and protecting the natural environment
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4
Q

Name ways of conservation in situ

A
  • legislation
  • wildlife reserves
  • repopulation
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5
Q

Describe legislation as an in situ method of conservation

A
  • it is possible to pass legislation to stop such activities as hunting, logging and clearing land for development or agriculture
  • legislation is specific to a particular country
  • it can be difficult to persuade some countries that legislation is necessary, can also be difficult to enforce such legislation- if specially if the government is not in favour of it
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6
Q

Describe wildlife reserves as an in situ method of conservation

A
  • designated areas established for the conservation of habitats on species
  • large reserves are an important part of the conservation efforts in many parts of the world including Africa
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7
Q

What additional sites can be used for in situ conservation

A

land management agreements on private land and farm sites can also be used for conservation as well as wildlife reserves

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8
Q

What should be the principles for choosing a wildlife reserve for in situ conservation

A
  • comprehensiveness- how many species are represented in the area and what are the prevailing environmental conditions
  • adequacy- is the area large enough to provide for the long term survival of all the species, populations and communities represented
  • representativeness- is there a full range of diversity within each species and each set of environmental conditions
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9
Q

What additional factors need to be considered in in situ conservation

A
  • other human activity- a reserve should meet the needs of the indigenous people- they may use the land for traditional hunting or for spiritual and religious activities
  • in the past, reserves have been set up without consideration of the local people and this has led to conflict- the reasons why conflict arises could be due to:
  • protected animals coming out of the reserve to raid crops- permits often reads farms for maize, mangoes and sugar cane
  • people continuing to hunt protected animals for food- poaching
  • illegal harvesting of timber and other plant products
  • tourists feeding protected animals or leaving litter
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10
Q

Describe wildlife reserves in the UK

A
  • various bodies in the UK work to conserve and enhance the natural environment- including landscape, biodiversity, natural resources, geology and soils
  • many parts of the UK are protected by designated status
  • national parks- 15 in the UK- cover many of the most beautiful and valued landscapes- areas of protected countryside that everyone can visit, where people live, work and shape the landscape
  • National nature reserves (NNR)- in 2014 bourbon nearly 400 NNRs in the UK, covering nearly every type of vegetation found here, and occupying over 94,000 hectares of land- these areas are set up to protect sensitive features of the environment and to enable research and education
  • Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs)- over 6000 in the UK- the countries very best wildlife and geological sites- include some of our most spectacular and beautiful habitats- large wetlands teeming with waders and waterfowl, winding chalk rivers, gorse and Heather clad heathlands, flower rich meadows, windswept shingle beaches, and remote upland more and peat bogs
  • local nature reserves- often run by county Wildlife Trusts
  • marine conservation zones- 27 sites around the UK coast were designated as marine conservation zones in 2013- these are areas that are important to conserve the biodiversity of nationally rare common threatened and representative habitats and species in our seas
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11
Q

advantages of in situ conservation

A
  • plants and animals are conserved in their natural environment
  • it permanently protects biodiversity and representative examples of ecosystems
  • it permanently protects significant elements of natural and cultural heritage
  • it allows management of these areas to ensure that ecological integrity is maintained
  • it may provides opportunities for ecologically stable land uses, including traditional outdoor heritage activities and the associated economic benefits
  • it facilitates scientific research
  • it may be possible to improve and restore ecological integrity of the area
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12
Q

disadvantages of in situ conservation

A
  • endangered habitats may be fragmented, and each small area may not be large enough to ensure survival
  • the population may already have lost much of its genetic diversity
  • the conditions that caused the habitat or species to become endangered may still be present
  • the area can act as a ‘honey-pot’ to poachers and ecotourists, who inadvertently cause disturbance
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13
Q

Describe re population as a method of conservation in situ

A
  • where biodiversity has been lost, it is possible to rebuild it- many examples of sites where recreated wildlife habitats have been made to work
  • in the UK, the numbers of Bitterns an otters are increasing in new reed beds, conifer crops are being cleared from wildlife habitat for recovery, and large areas of grazing lands are being helped to revert to traditional Meadow grasslands
  • In the phinda reserve of South Africa, work began in 1990 to clear away livestock and reintroduced natural fauna- more than 1000 wildebeest, zebra’s, giraffes and other ungulates well released between 1990 and 1992
  • nearly 30 white rhinos and 56 elephants followed
  • later, in 1992 convert 13 lions and 17 cheaters were released- this was a start towards recreating the rich mammal community that existed in the region before European colonisation
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14
Q

What is conservation ex situ

A

Conserving an endangered species by activities that take place outside its normal habitat

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15
Q

Name types of conservation ex situ

A
  • zoos
  • botanic gardens
  • seed banks
  • storage of seeds
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16
Q

Describe zoos as a method of ex situ conservation

A
  • traditional zoological colletions held any animals that were kept by their owner or unusual to the public
  • more recently, role of zoos has changedd- many called wildlife parksp- play important role in conservation
  • many concentrate on captive breeding (breeding endangered species such as the giant panda) and conducting research that should benefit endangered species
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17
Q

Describe how modern zoos aid in conservation

A
  • modern reproductive technologies such as freezing sperm, eggs, or embryos can preserve large amounts of genetic material
  • artificial incemination (in vitro fertilisation) and embryo transfer techniques are also being used with wild animals
  • reproductive physiology is quite species-specific, and further research into endangered species is needed to ensure that the techniques are used effectively
  • some zoos may carry out research on domestic species or common wild species that are very similar to the target species- means that individuals from endangered species can be spared from the experimental research, but will benefit in the long term
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18
Q

Advantages of ex situ conservation

A
  • the organisms are protected from predation and poaching
  • the health of individuals can be monitored and medical assistance given as required
  • populations can be divided, so that if a disaster strikes one population, then the other still survives
  • the genetic diversity of the population can be measured
  • selective breeding can be carried out to increase genetic diversity
  • modern reproductive technonly can such as in vitro fertalistaion can be used to increase the chances of reproductive success
  • animals (and plants) can be bred to increase the numbers of an endangered species
  • research into the reporductive physiology, lifestyle and ecology of endangered species is made easier
  • conservation sites can be used as attractions to raise funds for further conservation efforts, including fundraising for iconic animals species (such as the panda)
  • conservation sites can be used for education
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19
Q

disadvantages of ex situ conservation

A
  • a captive population is always likely to have a limited genetic diversity
  • the animals can be exposed to a wide range of diseases
  • the organism are living outside their natural habitat
  • nutritional issues can be difficult to manage
  • animals may not behave as normal, and reproduction may be difficult
  • the correct environmental conditions for survival may be difficult to achieve
  • it may be expensive to maintain suitable environmental conditions
  • even is reproduction is successful, the animals have to survive reintroduction to the wild, where they need to find food and survive predation
  • when reintroduced, there can also be issues of acceptance by the existing members of their species
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20
Q

Describe botanic gardes as a method of ex situ conservation

A
  • many started life because of an affluent collector

- today, most are involved with the conservation of endangered species

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21
Q

Reasons why ex situ conservation of plants may be easier than that of animals

A
  • as part of their life cycle, most plants naturally have a doormat stage- the seed
  • as seeds are produced in large numbers, they can be collected from the wild without causing too much disturbance to the ecosystem or damaging the wild population
  • these seeds can be stored in huge numbers without occupying too much space
  • these seats can be stored and germinated in protected surroundings
  • plants can often be bread asexually
  • the Botanic Garden can increase the number of individual plants very quickly, through techniques such as tissue culture, which provides an ample supply for research or for re introduction to the wild
  • the captive bred individuals can be replanted in the wild
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22
Q

What are issues of Botanic Gardens as a method of ex situ conservation

A
  • funding a Botanic Garden can be difficult- public perception of plants is not the same as with animals and fewer people are willing to sponsor a plants or give money to save a particular iconic species
  • collecting wild seeds will always cause some disturbance
  • the collected samples may not have a representative level of genetic diversity
  • seeds collected from one area may be genetically different from those collected elsewhere and may not succeed in a different area
  • seeds left for any length of time may not be viable
  • plants bred asexually will be genetically identical- reducing genetic diversity further
  • conclusions from research based on a small sample may not be valid for the whole species
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23
Q

Describe seeds banks as part of ex situ conservation

A
  • a seed bank is a collection of seed samples
  • e.g. seed bank project at Wakehurst in Sussex is the largest exit shoot conservation project yet conceived- aims to store a representative sample of seeds from every known species of plant- will include examples of the rarest, most useful and most threatened species
  • seeds banks contain seeds that can remain viable for decades and possibly hundreds of years
  • however the seeds are not simply being stored- some are being used to provide a wide range of benefits to humanity including providing seeds for food crops and building materials for rural communities, and disease resistant crops for agriculture
  • the seeds can also be used for habitat reclamacion and re population of endangered habitats
  • the collections held in the millenium seed bank, and the knowledge derived from them, provide almost infinite options for their conservation and use
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24
Q

Describe storage of seeds as part of ex situ conservation

A
  • in order to prolong verifiability, seeds are stored in very dry or freezing conditions
  • seeds are resistant to desiccation, and the level of moisture in each seed has a direct effect of storage
  • for every 1% decrease in seeds moisture level, the life span doubles
  • for every 5 degrees reduction in temperature, the life span also doubles
  • however seeds stored for decades may deteriorate- there is little use in storing seeds that Diane will not be able to germinate so it is essential to test their seeds at regular intervals to check their viability
  • scientists at the Millennium seeds bank carry out 10,000 germination tests each year- they periodically removed samples and germinate them in Petri dishes of nutrient Agar keeping them in controlled conditions- germination rates are monitored, and research into the Physiology of seed dormancy and germination is carried out- it should lead to the discovery of the most effective methods of storage
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25
Q

What is biodiversity

A
  • A measure of variation found in the living world- measure of species , genes and ecosystems
  • about structural and functional variety in the living world
  • can consider at number of levels- habitat, species, genetic
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26
Q

Describe habitat biodiversity

A
  • habitat is place where induviduals live
  • the range of habitats in which different species live
  • UK examples- sand dunes, woodland, meadow, streams
  • each habitat will be occupied by range of organisms
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27
Q

Describe species biodiversity

A
  • a species consists of organisms that are very similar in appearance, anatomy, physiology, biochemistry and genetics- individuals can interbreed freely to produce fertile offspring
  • range of organisms found in a habitat contributes to species biodiversity
  • can be in form of species richness or species evenness
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28
Q

Describe genetic biodiversity

A
  • variation between individuals belonging to same species
  • this is the variation found between any survived that ensures we don’t all look identical
  • genetic variation can create breeds
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29
Q

What do you need to do to measure the biodiversity of a habitat

A
  • observe all the species present, identify them , count how many individuals of each species there are
  • ideally, should do this for all plants, animals, fungi, bacteria and single-celled organisms living in the habitat
  • some microorganisms can be cultured on a nutrient medium in the laboratory to gain an estimate of numbers, but not all will grow like this
  • instead of counting all, you can use sampling techiques
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30
Q

Describe sampling

A
  • selecting a small portion and studying that carefully- can then multiply up the numbers of individuals of each species found in order to estimate the number in the whole habitat
  • important that the samples taken are representative of the habitat
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31
Q

Name sampling techniques

A
  • random

- non-random- opportunistic, stratified, systematic

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32
Q

Describe random sampling

A
  • sample sites inside the habitat are randomly selected
  • can do this by deciding where to take samples before you study any area in detail
  • can be achieved by using randomly generated numbers as coordinates for your samples, or possibly selecting coordinates from a map and using a portable global positioning satellite system to find the exact position inside the habitat
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33
Q

Advantages of random sampling

A
  • ensures that the data are not biased by selective sampling
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34
Q

disadvantages of random sampling

A

May not cover all areas of a habitat equally- species with a low presence may be missed comment leading to an underestimate of biodiversity

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35
Q

Describe opportunistic sampling

A
  • when the researcher makes sampling decisions based on prior knowledge or during the process of collecting data, the researcher may deliberately sample an area that they know (or can see) contains a particular species
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36
Q

Advantages of opportunistic sampling

A

Easier and quicker than random sampling

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37
Q

Disadvantages of opportunistic sampling

A

The data may be biased- the presence of large or colourful species may entice the researcher to include that species- may lead to an over estimate of it’s important and therefore an over estimate of biodiversity

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38
Q

Describe stratified sampling

A
  • dividing a habitat into areas which appear different, and sampling each area separately- for example sampling patches of bracken in heathlands separately from Heather or gorse patches
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39
Q

Advantages of stratified sampling

A
  • ensures that all different areas of habitat all samples and species are not under represented due to the possibility that random sampling misses certain areas
40
Q

Disadvantages of stratified sampling

A

There is a possibility that this may lead to over representation of some areas in the sample- disproportionate number of samples taken in small areas that look different

41
Q

Describe systematic sampling

A

when samples are taken at fixed intervals across a habitat- line transects and belt transects are systematic techniques

42
Q

Advantages of systematic sampling

A

Particularly useful when the habitat shows a clear gradient in some environmental factor such as getting drier further from a pond

43
Q

disadvantages of systematic sampling

A

Only the species on the line or within the belts can be recorded and other species may be missed, leading to an underestimate of biodiversity

44
Q

Describe preparation needed to sample a habitat

A
  • suitable clothing- type of habitat/weather
  • suitable footwear
  • apparatus needed to carry out the sampling
  • clipboard, pen and paper to record observations
  • appropriate keys to identify plants
  • camera or smartphone to record specimens and grid location
  • ideally need to consider number of samples you will collect- prepare table to record observations
45
Q

Describe sampling of plants at a specific site

A
  • random sampling important but may need to modify technique is sample is not homogenous (even)- opportunistic/stratified- can combine
  • sampling should cause as little disturbance as possible e.g. placing quadrats, picking flowers, trampling
46
Q

How can large plants be samples

A
  • e.g. trees in wood- identified and counted individually- however if small or numerous, best to calculate percentage cover
47
Q

name different ways of sampling plants

A
  • random quadrats- random coordinates- can count soecies, estimate percentage cover, use point fram or ACFOR scale
  • non-random- transects- belt/line, continuous/discontinuous
48
Q

Describe the use of random quadrats to sample plants

A
  • quadrat is a square frame used to define the size of a sample area
  • may be any size, but often 50cm or 1m each side
  • generate random numbers- use these as coordinates to place quadrats within habitat- tape measure/count even places
49
Q

Describe ways of counting plants inside random quadrats

A
  • counting- count no. of each species
  • % cover- estimate %cover of each species- most tend to underestimate- some quadrats have smaller squares (usually 100)- can help make more accurate estimate
  • ACFOR scale- use letter to correlate to estimated % cover- faster- see image
  • point frame- frame holding number of long needles/pointers lower frame into quadrant and records any plant touching the needle- if frame has 10 needles and used 10 times in each quadrat, you will have 100 readings- one needle may touch several plants- may get more than 100% cover- best t use at gregukar interavaks to govern bare ground- avoids bias- systematic sampling within randomly placed quadrat
50
Q

Describe use of transects for plant sampling

A
  • stretch a long string/tape measure across habitat- take samples along line
  • line transect in large habitat- count plants touching line at set intervals
  • interrupted belt transect- use quadrat at set intervals- prodes quanative data at intervals
  • continuousbelt transect place transect beside line, move it along so you can study band/belt in detail- provide quanitive data in band/belt
51
Q

Why is it difficult to obtain quantitive data on animals, what can be done

A
  • many not easy to spot and difficult to count
  • larger animals can detect presence of humans before we see them and so will hide away
  • small animals also hide, and move too quickly to count accurately
  • can note presence of larger animals using observations e.g. droppings, pellets from ols, footprints, burrows and bark damage from deers
  • ecologists often rely on these signs to estimate population sizes
  • recent advances allow scientists to use DNA sequencing to distinguish droppings from different individuals- provides more accurate way to calculate population size
52
Q

Name different ways of catching invertebrates

A
  • sweep netting/pooter
  • knocking branch with stout stick
  • pitfall trap
  • tullgren funnel
  • light trap
53
Q

Describe use of sweep netting to catch invertebrates

A
  • involves walking through habitat with stout net
  • seep net through vegetation in wide arcs- any small animals e.g. insects will be caught in net
  • the can empty contents onto a white sheet to identify them
  • many will crawl/fly away as soon as released- use pooter to collect animals before flying away- suitable for low vegetation that isn’t too woody
  • can use similar techniques to make samples in water
54
Q

Describe sampling of invertebrates from trees

A
  • using sweep net unlikely to work well
  • better to spread white sheet out under a branch, and knock the branch with a stout stick
  • vibrations dislodge any small animals, which then drop onto the sheet- need to be fast to identify and count before they crawl/fly away
55
Q

Describe use of a pitfall trap to catch invertebrates

A
  • trap set in soil
  • consists of small container buried in soil so rim is just below surface
  • any animals moving through plants/leaf litter on soil surface will fall into container
  • should contain a little water/scrunched paper to stop animals crawling out again
  • if raining, tra should be sheltered from rain so it doesn’t fill up
56
Q

Describe use of a tullgren funnell to catch invertebrates

A
  • device for collecting small animals from leaf litter
  • place leaf litter in a funnel
  • light above the litter drives the animals downwards as the litter dries out and warms up
  • they falk through the mesh screen ti be collected in a jar underneath the funnel
57
Q

Describe use of a light trap to catch invertebrates

A
  • can be used to collect flying insects at night
  • uses ultraviolet light that attracts insects
  • under light is a vessel containing alcohol
  • moths and other insects attracted to the light will eventually fall into the alcohol
58
Q

Describe the trapping of small animals and how to estimate population size using this

A
  • technique depends on animals- may need licence, cant cause harm (e.g. made easier to be caught as prey)
  • small mammals can be trapped using longworth trap- humane trap that doesn’t harm animal- must be monitored regularly to release any trapped animals- enables population size to be calculated using mark and recapture technique
  • capture sample of animals, mark, recapture- can use for some insects e.g. grasshoppers
  • bird populations can be estimated by using a ringing technique to identify induviduals, larger mammals can be trapped- require skill and experience, should only be carried out with suitable permit issued by relevant authority (the British trust for Ornithology issues permits to ring birds for research purposes)
59
Q

Describe how to estimate a population size using capture/recapture

A
60
Q

Assumptions of capture/recapture calculations

A
  • there is no migration (immigration/emigration)
  • no births/deaths
  • all members of the population mix randomly
  • the make does not harm the animal or affect its chances of recapture
  • some animals don’t learn the trap is harmless and contains food
  • that animals dint avoid the trap after the first capture
61
Q

Capture/recapture formula

A
62
Q

2 things to consider when measuring biodiversity

A
  • species richness

- species evenness

63
Q

Define species richness, what you need in addition

A
  • number of different species present in a habitat
  • the more species present, the richer the habitat
  • not sufficiently quantitative to be measure of biodiversity on its own- doesn’t account for the number of individuals in each species- need to estimate species eveness
64
Q

Describe species evenness

A
  • measure of the relative numbers of abundance of individuals in each species
  • a habitat in which there are even numbers of induvuals in each species is likely to be more diverse than one in which individuals of one species outnumber all the others- e.g. percentage cover rather than numbers of individuals
65
Q

How can species richness be calculated

A
  • counting all the species present in the habitat
66
Q

How can species evenness be calculated

A
  • quantitive survey
  • plants- % cover or count number of individuals per unit area
  • extra percautions when sampling aquatic habitats
67
Q

Describe measuring the density of animals in a habitat

A
  • means calculating how many animals of each species there are per unit area of the habitat
  • larger animals- observation
  • smaller- sampling techniques
  • mark and recapture
  • small animals in soil- take a sample of soil and sift through it to find all the individuals, count them
  • water- net- sift though mud at bottom- can estimate population size and diversity
68
Q

Method of calculating biodiversity

A

Simpsons index of diversity

69
Q

Describe simpsons index of biodiversity, how to calculate

A
  • takes into account species richness and eveness
  • table:
  • n is number of individuals of a particular species (or percentage cover of plants)
  • N is total number of all individuals of all species (or tital percentage cover of plants- 100)
  • (n/N)^2 for all- sum of, then take away from one
70
Q

Describe interpretation of simpsons index

A
  • high- indicates diverse habitat- many different species- small change to environment may affect one species- if species is only small part of habitat, total number of induviduals affected is small proportion of total number present- therefor effect on whole habitat small- habitat tends tow withstand change
  • low- suggests habitat dominated by a dew species- small change to environment that affects one of those species could damage or destroy whole habitat- e.g. predator disease, human action nearby
71
Q

Describe populations that tend to have low genetic diversity

A
  • isolated populations such as captive animals in a zoo, rare breeds, pedigree animals e.g. Przewalskis horses
  • assessing their genetic diversity can help to asses that value of that population as a resource for conservation
  • simple assesmnet- looking at observable diversity
72
Q

Describe genetic diversity- what causes it

A
  • found where there is more than one allele for a particular locus
  • will lead to more variations- may be easily observable
  • means there will be more genetic differences between the gametes (sperm and egg) produced by members of the population
73
Q

Describe 3 ways of calculating genetic diversity

A
  • calculating number of loci in one individual that are heterozygous (different alleles)- but doesnt give good measure of the value of the population as a genetic resource
  • calculating % of loci in the population that have more than one allele
  • polymorphic gene loci- more than 2 alleles per loci (e.g. ABO blood group) - number of polymorphic gene loci/total number of loci
74
Q

Name factors that affect biodiversity

A
  • human population growth
  • agriculture
  • climate change
75
Q

Describe what has happened to biodiversity over recent years

A
  • declining- number of species and genetic diversity of species as result of humans
76
Q

Describe how human population growth affects biodiversity

A
  • several thousand years ago, humans lived as hunter-gatherers in small numbers and had little effect on natural processes
  • as the human population grows and we demand more food and consumer goods, we have greater and greater effect upon other species
  • We have earnt to use environment to our advantage
  • alter ecosystems to provide ourselves with food
  • we destroy and fragment habitats
  • we are using more of earths resources
  • we pollute the atmospebre
  • as a result of our activities we often harm other species either directly or indirectly, and this can leaf to extinction
77
Q

Describe how agriculture affects biodiversity

A
  • clearing natural vegetation- reduce size of habitats and population size of any wild species
  • educes genetic diversity of the population as their population is reduced- means species can have less capacity to adapt to changing conditions through evolution
  • may also leave isolated and fragmented populations that are too small to survive
  • modern agriculture relies upon monoculture and selective breeding to increase efficiency- monoculture is crop consisting of one strain of the species- limited genetic diversity- makes easier ti harvest e.g. palm oil
78
Q

Describe how climate change affects biodiversity

A
  • human activities appear to be altering the climate
  • species that have ost their genetic diversity show less variation between individuals
  • as the climate changes, they are less able to adapt to the changes in temperature and rainfall in the area they live
  • only alternative is for them to move and follow the climate patterns to which they are most suited- will mean a slow migration of populations, communities and ecosystems towards the poles plants growing in southern Europe may soon grow in northern Europe
  • however, there will be obstructions to this migration- major human developments, agricultural land, large bodies of water, mountain ranges
  • domesticated plants and animals are particularly at risk- we have selectively bred our crop plants and animals to provide the best yield n specific conditions- means they have little variation- unlikely to be able to adapt to changing conditions, vulnerable to disease
  • the efficiency of agriculture will decline and less food will be available- farmers will need to change the crops they grow and the varieties of animals they keep
  • crops from southern Europe can be grown in Britain, while southern parts of Europe may become desert
79
Q

Describe extinction

A
  • occurs when last living member of a species dies and the species caseses to exist
  • rate rise dramatically since humans spread widely over the earth about 100,00- years ago e.g. giant sloth and mammoths hunted for food
  • 800 reecorded extinctions since 1500
  • up to 20% of species alive today could be extinct by 2030
  • 1/3 if worlds primate species now face extinction- even apes in next 20 years
  • some scientists believe up to half of species alive today could be extinct by 2100
    current rate is 100-1000 times the normal ‘background’ rate
  • current rate of extinction is at least as fast as in any previous extinction event
  • many scientists believe that we are at the start of a great mass extinction event e.g. dinosaurs- but being caused by human activity rather than natural climate change or disaster
80
Q

Why may domesticated species be more at risk of extinction

A
  • reduction in number of alleles
  • smaller gene pool
  • less genetic diversity
  • selective breeding
81
Q

Name reasons to maintain biodiversity

A
  • ecological- interdependence of organisms, genetic resource
  • economic
  • aesthetic
82
Q

Describe interdependence of organisms as a reason to maintain biodiversity

A
  • natural ecosystems are complex- developed over millions of years as species have evolved to loge with eachother and depend on eachother
  • all organisms in a habitat are linked together in food chain or food web
  • relationships include predator-prey, intra and inter species competition, and parasitic and mutualistic relations
  • when one species is affected by human activity and its numbers decline, this will affect other species- may be small effect e.g. birds can switch from feeding on one insect to anther is one species dies- this is why habitats with higher species diversity tend to be more stable- can withstand certain amount of change
  • in simple habitat with lower species diversity, loss in numbers of one prey-insect species may mean predator gas less food and will itself decline in numbers
  • keystone species- disproportionate effect
83
Q

Describe keystone species, give examples

A
  • species that have a disproportionate effect upon their environment relative to their abundance
  • decline will have dramatic or even catastrophic effect on habitat
  • may be predators that limit the population of herbivores so vegetation isnt overgrazed

Mountain lions of Kaibab Plateau in Arizona:

  • hunted to protect deer population
  • caused deer population to increase dramatically- ate al vegetation- population plumetted as deer starve

Sugar maple tree:

  • in deciduous forest in northern USA
  • large tree with deep roots
  • roots can acccess water deep in soil and transfer it to shallower regions that are dry, making it available to other plants
  • the foilage produces a covering canopy, which keeps the soil cool and moist
  • this allows many soil organisms to thrive including earthworms and many soil dwelling insects
  • shade also prevents undergrowth - allows other tree species to take root and grow
  • sap is sweet and provides food for a variety of insects (and the manufacture of maple syrup)
  • many insects, birds and small mammals live in the tree canopy

Beaver:

  • may be relatively small population of beavers, but the dams they build have huge effect on habitat
  • large areas can be flooded, creates still water in which many other species can live
84
Q

Describe genetic resource as a reason to maintain biodiversity

A
  • allowing biodiversity to decline means that genetic diversity also declines- can loose natural solutions to some problems from climate change etc
  • populations of wild plants growing in an area have has thousands of ears to evolve- adapted to overcome problems presented by the environment- may have adapted to pests and diseases found in that area
  • by careful selection and breeding from wild strains and wild species, we may be able to breed new crop varieties that can cope with the new conditions created by climate change
  • genetic engineering to produce transgenic species could also be used to good effects
  • the number of potential new medicines and vaccines to be found in native plants, animals, fungi and bacteria is unknown
  • plants have evolved a in a wide range of molecules that combat diseases, and fungi have evolved molecules that help them compete with bacteria in the soil- any of these molecules could be of value in developing a new and effective pharmaceutical product
  • important to maintain the genetic diversity of wild species because of the potential that exists in the wide range of species currently extant
85
Q

Describe economic reasons to maintain biodiversity

A

In 1977, and international team of economists and environmental scientists attempted to quantify the economic value of not show ecosystems- came up with figure of $33x10^12- they looked at all the ways in which natural ecosystems perform process is that are of value to humans- including:

  • regulation of the atmosphere and climate
  • purification and retention of freshwater
  • formation and fertilisation of soil
  • recycling of nutrients
  • detoxification and recycling of wastes
  • crop pollination
  • growth of timber, food and fuel
  • discovery of molecules with potential as medicines
  • all of these factors impact upon food production
  • one of the most immediate effects that loss of biodiversity has had on food production is the depletion of soil
  • soils that are subjected to continuous monoculture become less and less fertile- as a result, agricultural yields decline as the crop takes minerals out of the soil, and when the crop is harvested these minerals are removed from the ecosystem
  • when a monoculture is grown, the plants always take the same minerals, and the effect is observed more quickly
  • the effects of soil depletion were seen in the dust bowl of America during the 1930s - years of cropping without replacing organic matter, followed by drought, led to the soil turning to dust
  • similar soil depletion is occuring in the tropics as a result of tropical forest being converted to monoculture
86
Q

Describe aesthetic reasons to maintain biodiversity

A
  • we experience a feeling of joy and wellbeing when observing the infinite variations of nature that that no human art or design can compete- studies shown that patients recovered more rapidly from stress and injury when they are exposed to pleasing natural environmental conditions- it clear that natural systems are very important for our well being and for our physical, intellectual, and emotional health
  • more basic reasons to maintain the aesthetic value created by biodiversity- landscapes are formed by the action of climatic factors on the lands but the lining biosphere also has its effects on the landscape
  • diverse tropical forests protects the soil from climatic factors such as rainfall that could erodes and wash away the exposed soils
  • Woodlands or forest acts as a reservoir when it rains- the trees take up water, and the organic matter in the soil holds water- means that run off, and drainage are reduced
  • the water that collects in forested hills will it slowly drain away and supply water downstream for some time after the rainfall has stopped
  • producing biodiversity exposes the soil and changes the landscape
  • deforestation husband linked to severe flooding in many areas of the world- the protection of the soil is reduced when the trews are removed and replaced by buildings or agriculture hi fan rainfall drains more quickly and there is more run off- means that flooding is more likely
  • in extreme case, the rainfall will emerge the soil and wash it downstream- at the soil is deposited where the water flow is reduced and further reduces the drainage- increases the chance of flooding
  • in regions where rainfall is very seasonal, means that water is no longer stored in the hills and, when the rain stops, the flooding is quickly followed by drought
87
Q

Name methods of international conservation

A
  • CITES
  • Rio Convention on Biological Diversity
  • role of zoos, botanic gardens, and seed banks
88
Q

name an example of local conservation schemes

A

The countryside sterwardshp scheme

89
Q

CITES- describe

A
  • convention on international trade in Endangered Species of the Wild Fauna and Flora
  • an international agreement between the majority of governments in the world
  • first agreed in 1973
  • overall aim to ensure that international trade in specimens of wildlife doesn’t threaten their survival
  • over 25000 species of plants and animals identified as being at risk from international trade
90
Q

CITES- aims

A
  • regulate and monitor international trade in selected species of plants and animals
  • ensure that international trade doesn’t endanger the survival of populations in the wild
  • ensure that trade in artificially propagated plants is allowed, subject to permit
  • ensure that slightly less endangered wild species may be traded subject to a permit, as agreed between the exporting and importing countries
91
Q

CITES- problems

A

International trade policies can be hard to enforce- where there is demand for a product, there will be attempts to supply it- smuggling of live plants and animals and their products, such as ivory, is a constant problem

92
Q

Rio Convention on Biological Diversity - describe

A
  • signed by 150 government leaders at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit
  • The Convention is dedicated to promoting sustainable development
  • recognises that biological diversity is about more than plants, animals and microorganisms and their ecosystems- also about people and our need for secure sources of food, medicines, fresh air and water and a clean and healthy environment in which to live
  • encourages cooperation between countries and states- encourages each partner to develop a national strategy for conservation and the sustainable use of biological diversity
  • more specifically, it states partner states must adopt ex situ conservation of facilities, mainly to compliment in situ measures
93
Q

Rio Convention on Biological Diversity- aims

A
  • conservation of biological diversity
  • sustainable use of its components
  • appropriate shared access to genetic resources
  • appropriate sharing and transfer of scientific knowledge and technologies
  • fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of genetic resources
94
Q

role of zoos, botanic gardens, and seed banks in international conservation

A
  • international cooperation involves the sharing of research, genetic information and technology
  • ex situ conservation facilities in different member states provide support for each other and share their technologies and genetic material
  • breeding programmes in zoos are strengthened by importing animals from pars or zoos in other countries- different ones speciealise in breeding of different animals - they will hold the ‘studbooks’ for that species for the world zoo community
  • time, expense and distress to rare animals can be reduced by importing genetic material- sperm, eggs and embryos- using artificial insemination or in vitro fertilisation techniques
  • research and technology is shared between member states to help improve the chances of success
  • reintroduction of animals bred in zoos will fail unless there is cooperation from the countries where animals are reintroduced
  • wildlife reserves with suitable protection for the animals and plants are essential for successful reintroduction
  • plant breeding programmes can be enhanced by sharing stored specimens e.g. Key Millennium seedbanks- partner states in 50 countries- partners also duplicate the collections in case of unforeseen disaster- seed information database contains hundreds of of thousands of records that are available to other projects
95
Q

The countryside sterwardship scheme- describe

A
  • introduced to England in 1991
  • applied to land that was not considered to be in an environmentally sensitive area
  • payments made to farmers and other land managers in order to enhance and conserve English landscapes
  • current also available for capital works such as hedge laying, planting and repairing dry stone walls
96
Q

The countryside sterwardshp scheme- aims

A
  • improve the natural beauty and diversity of the countryside
  • enhance, restore and re create targeted landscapes, their wildlife habitats and historical features
  • improve opportunities for public access
97
Q

The countryside stewardship scheme- development

A
  • replaced by the environmental stewardship scheme in 2005
  • provides funding to farmers and other land managers in England to deliver effective environmental management on their land
  • aim is to provide funding and advice to help land managers to conserve, enhance and promotes the countryside by:
  • looking after wildlife, species and their many habitats
  • ensuring plant is well managed and retains its traditional character
  • protecting historic features and natural resources
  • ensuring traditional livestock and crops are conserved
  • providing opportunities for people to visit and learn about the countryside

Module 4- biodiversity, evolution and disease (3 decks)

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