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MCAT > Biochemistry - MCAT > Flashcards

Biochemistry - MCAT Flashcards

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1
Q

Pinocytosis can also be called what due to the fact that it ingests dissolved electrolytes and solvents?

A

cell drinking

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2
Q

Can urea diffuse across the membrane?

A

yes

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3
Q

Can an ion moving through an ion channel down its concentration gradient also be moving against an osmotic gradient?

A

yes

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4
Q

How many potassium (K) are pumped inside and sodium (Na) are pumped outside of the cell with NaK ATPase?

A

2, 3

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5
Q

Does phagocytosis take up solids or liquids?

A

solids

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6
Q

During the citric acid cycle, what form of energy is phosphorylated/is the energy product?

A

GTP

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7
Q

What molecules are oxidized in the electron transport chain?

A

NADH, FADH2

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8
Q

How many NET ATP are produced in glycolysis?

A

2

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9
Q

How many ATP are produced per NADH oxidized?

A

2.5

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10
Q

How many ATP are produced per FADH2 oxidized?

A

1.5

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11
Q

Does higher salt content in your sweat mean higher or lower salt content in your blood?

A

lower

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12
Q

If a molecule is reduced will it have more or fewer bonds to oxygen?

A

fewer

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13
Q

If a molecule likes to be reduced, will it have a higher or lower reduction potential?

A

higher

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14
Q

As you go across the ETC, each complex has a higher or lower reduction potential than the last?

A

higher

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15
Q

What glucose transporter is in nearly *all* tissues and increases when blood glucose is low? hint: “baseline”

A

GLUT1

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16
Q

What glucose transporter is on gluconeogenic cells, is bidirectional, and senses glucose on the pancreas?

A

GLUT2

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17
Q

What glucose transporter has a high glucose affinity even during low conc.? note: in brain and placenta

A

GLUT3

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18
Q

What glucose transporter is expressed at high glu conc because it stores glucose?

A

GLUT4

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19
Q

Where does glycolysis take place in the cell?

A

cytosol

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20
Q

Where does the citric acid cycle take place in eukaryotes?

A

mitochondrial matrix

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21
Q

Draw the graphs for competitive inhibitors

A

Vmax doesn’t change Km increases (binding affinity decreases bc more than one molecule is competing for binding site)

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22
Q

Draw the graphs for *noncompetitive* inhibitors

A

Binds allosterically and decreases the enzyme activity (Vmax) but binding affinity stays the same (no change to Km)

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23
Q

Draw the graphs for *uncompetitive* inhibitors

A

Binds allosterically and won’t let enzyme release the substrate (increases binding affinity/decreases Km), Vmax decreases bc less enzyme is left to work

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24
Q

What is the brain division for the forebrain called?

A

prosencephalon (personality and behavior)

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25
Q

What is the developing brain division for the area that carries the thalamus, hypothalamus, pineal gland, and posterior pituitary called?

A

diencephalon

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26
Q

What is the developing brain division for the area that carries the cerebrum, cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and basal ganglia called?

A

telencephalon

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27
Q

The limbic system controls what? hint: 3 m’s

A

motion, motivation, memory

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28
Q

What are the functions of the frontal lobe?

A

higher-level cognition, executive functions

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29
Q

What are the functions of the temporal lobe?

A

sound and language processing memory consolidation

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30
Q

What are the functions of the occipital lobe?

A

primary visual cortex

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31
Q

What are the functions of the parietal lobe?

A

sensory processing (such as touch via the postcentral gyrus)

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32
Q

What is the function of the cerebrum?

A

coordination of motor control (contains basal ganglis, hippocampus, and pons)

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33
Q

What is the function of the medulla oblongata?

A

controls autonomic functions (breathing, HR, etc)

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34
Q

What are the functions of the pons?

A

sleep, respiration, swallowing, taste, bladder control, balance

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35
Q

What is the name for the developing division of the midbrain and what are its functions?

A

mesencephalon motor control, sleeping, homeostatic regulation + superior colliculus (visual reflex) +inferior colliculus (auditory reflex)

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36
Q

What is the developing brain division for the hindbrain?

A

rhombencephalon

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37
Q

What are the components of the brainstem?

A

midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata

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38
Q

What are the functions of the somatic nervous system?

A

voluntary movement, innervation of muscles

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39
Q

How long are sympathetic nerves (preganglionic axons) and where do they release neurotransmitter?

A

Short, onto ganglions near the spinal cord typically

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40
Q

What is the pre-ganglionic neurotransmitter for both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?

A

ACh

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41
Q

What is the post-ganglionic neurotransmitter for the PSNS?

A

ACh

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42
Q

What neurotransmitter’s loss is associated with loss of fine motor control?

A

Dopamine

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43
Q

What is the most prominent excitatory neurotransmitter?

A

glutamate

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44
Q

What is the most prominent inhibitory neurotransmitter?

A

GABA

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45
Q

What sensation does the medial geniculate body of the thalamus process?

A

Auditory along with the inferior colliculus

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46
Q

What areas of the brain help with voluntary motor control?

A

Precentral gyrus, cerebellum, basal ganglis (substantia nigria with Dopamine)

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47
Q

What cells provide nutrients, protection, and insulation for neurons?

A

glial cells

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48
Q

What type of glial cell coats the blood brain barrier?

A

Astrocytes (transport nutrients in and out)

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49
Q

What glial cells protect the central and peripheral nervous system respectively?

A

Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells (form myelation)

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50
Q

What acts as macrophages in the CNS?

A

microglia

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51
Q

What cells secrete CSF?

A

ependymal

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52
Q

How long are pre-ganglionic and post-ganglionic parasympathetic fibers respectively?

A

long, short

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53
Q

Draw an action potential on a depolarization graph with sodium and potassium channels

A

ok - add a pic if you can get this to work

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54
Q

What sensation does the *lateral* geniculate body of the thalamus process?

A

vision along with the superior colliculus

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55
Q

What are the structures of the limbic system?

A

the amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and cingulate gyrus

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56
Q

Do endo and exo-cytosis require ATP?

A

yes!

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57
Q

What is the electrical potential difference across the plasma membrane?

A

negative because cytoplasm is negative in relation to the extracellular fluid

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58
Q

What direction do potassium leak channels and Na/K ATPase channels move potassium respectively?

A

out of cell, into cell

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59
Q

Na/K ATPase moves how many molecules of Na and K and in what direction?

A

3 Na out / 2 K in

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60
Q

Do axons with large or small diameters transmit signals faster?

A

large (greater conductance)

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61
Q

What molecules greatly contribute to the positive extracellular environment at rest?

A

Sodium, chloride, and Ca2+

62
Q

What molecule is in great amounts in intracellular fluid at rest?

A

Potassium

63
Q

What way does potassium travel through *leak* channels?

A

Out of the cell

64
Q

What is the resting membrane potential of the cell?

A

-70 mV

65
Q

What do baroreceptors respond to?

A

Changes in pressure

66
Q

Which is harder to depolarized: small or large neurons?

A

large due to the more area to store charge along their membrane

67
Q

What is membrane resistance?

A

The ability to keep charges separate

68
Q

What is cytoplasmic resistance?

A

How much the cytoplasm itself impedes the flow of ions

69
Q

The larger the neuron, the ____ the cytoplasmic resistance, the ___ the conductance

A

lower, greater

70
Q

What is the effect of a higher membrane resistance on action potential?

A

It makes transmission more effective

71
Q

What is the effect of myelination on membrane resistance and capacitance?

A

Increases resistance and decreases capacitance making signals travel faster

72
Q

What type of fatty acid subclass is arachidonic acid (a fatty acid) a precursor for?

A

prostanoids

73
Q

What biomolecule is the precursor for prostanoids / prostaglandins?

A

Arachidonic Acid

74
Q

What is a nucleotide comprised of?

A

ribose (deoxy for DNA) + phosphate + nitrogenous base

75
Q

What does RT-PCR analyze?

A

RNA

76
Q

What does a nucleoSIDE consist of?

A

Nitrogenouse base + ribose sugar

77
Q

Can proteins cross the blood brain barrier?

A

YES - proteins are needed for EVERY cell

78
Q

What structure gives rise to the nervous system in development?

A

ectoderm

79
Q

What structure gives rise to the bone, cartilage, 3 types of muscle, and tissues involved in the excretory and reproductive systems in developing fetuses?

A

Mesoderm

80
Q

What is a positive control?

A

A control group that is NOT the same as the experimental but is KNOWN to elicit the expected effects

81
Q

What is a negative control?

A

A control group that is not the experimental and does NOT elicit an effect

82
Q

What is a thioether?

A

R-S-R’

83
Q

What is an imine?

A

A double-bonded nitrogen and carbon (2R-C=N-R’)

84
Q

What is an imide?

A

A nitrogen bound to TWO carbonyl carbons

85
Q

What is physiological pH in humans?

A

Around 7.4 (7.37-7.47)

86
Q

What is the side chain pKa of Tyr?

A

10.1

87
Q
A
88
Q

When does an amine group have a neutral charge?

A

When pH > its pKa (pKa=~9.7)

89
Q

If pH = a side chain’s pKa, what characteristics does the side chain hold?

A

Half is protonated and half is deprotonated

90
Q

What is an amino acid’s pI?

A

The pH in which its charge is zero (on a vertical slope of the titration curve)

91
Q
A
92
Q

To find the pI of an acidic or basic amino acid, how do you calculate?

A

average highest two pKa’s for basic, average the lowest two pKa’s for acidic

93
Q

What are tropic hormones?

A

Hormones that act on endocrine glands (don’t elicit effects explicitly)

94
Q

What are the types of *exocrine* secretions onto epithelial surfaces?

A

apocrine, merocrine, holocrine

95
Q

Do peptide hormones need transport proteins?

A

No (they are hydrophilic) but DO need membrane receptors for the same reason

96
Q

Do steroid hormones need transport proteins in the blood?

A

Yes! (they are hydrophobic) but they can freely diffuse into the cell for the same reason!

97
Q

Where are steroid hormones synthesized?

A

From cholesterol in the smooth ER and can freely diffuse into the blood from there

98
Q

What is the process for protein hormone synthesis?

A

Transcription, translation (in ribosome) to form pre-prohormone, modification in rough ER to prohormone, travel to golgi apparatus and get cleaved to form active hormone

99
Q

What type of hormones are T3 and T4?

A

amino-acid derived (from tyrosine) but hydrophobic

100
Q

What type of hormones are epi and norepi?

A

catecholamines (amino acid derived) and they are hydrophilic

101
Q

What type of hormone is melatonin?

A

amino acid-derived (from tryptophan) and is amphipathic (both hydrophobic and philic)

102
Q

What type of hormone can affect gene expression in the target cell?

A

steroid hormones

103
Q

Do steroid or peptide hormones have slow initiating, long-lasting effects?

A

steroid!

104
Q

What hormones are secreted by the pancreas?

A

insulin, glucagon, somatostatin

105
Q

What is the function of the thyroid hormone calcitonin?

A

to increase calcium storage in bone and increase secretion of calcium in urine

106
Q

What are the effects of vasopressin (ADH)?

A

increase water reabsorption in kidney collecting duct, decrease blood osmolarity, increase blood pressure

107
Q

What stimulates estrogen and follicle production respectively?

A

LH and FSH

108
Q

What type of hormones are secreted from the anterior and posterior pituitary?

A

peptide hormones

109
Q

What is the function of LH and FSH in males, respectively?

A

Stimulates Leydig cells, spermatogenesis

110
Q
A
111
Q

What is the function of parathyroid hormone?

A

increase calcium levels (promotes absorption in intestine, decreases storage in bone, and decreases excretion in urine)

112
Q

What is the function of the glucocorticoid hormone aldosterone (stimulated by the renin-angiotensin pathway)?

A

Increase sodium reabsorption in distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct. Causes fluid retention via osmosis

113
Q

What hormones are released from the adrenal cortex?

A

cortisol, androgens (estrogen and testosterone), and aldosterone

114
Q

What is the function of somatostatin secreted by delta cells in the pancreas?

A

inhibit growth hormone, reduce stomach acid, block digestive hormones

115
Q

What is vitamin d’s (calcitriol’s) effect on calcium?

A

increases serum calcium levels

116
Q

What hormone functions to decrease sodium reabsorption and thus decrease blood pressure?

A

atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) from cardiomyocytes of heart

117
Q

How do analogs function?

A

As competitive inhibitors!

118
Q

What hormones does the corpus luteum produce?

A

estrogen and progesterone

119
Q

What causes the proliferation of the endometrium of the uterus?

A

estrogen

120
Q

What are primary sex characteristics in males and females respectively?

A

testes development, ovary development

121
Q

What creates myelin sheaths in the CNS and PNS respectively?

A

oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells

122
Q

What strand of DNA is mRNA synthesized from?

A

The template strand is 3’ to 5’ – DNA synthesized 5’ to 3’ (it is identical to the coding strand)

123
Q

What are the stop codons of DNA?

A

UAA, UGA, UAG (do not get synthesized into a protein)

124
Q

What type of lipid is shown?

A

phosphatide

125
Q

What is the composition of sucrose?

A

glucose (6) + fructose (5)

126
Q

What is the structure of lactose?

A

glucose (6) + galactose (6)

127
Q

What is the difference between a pyranose and furanose sugar?

A

pyranose - 6 membered ring

furanose - 5 membered ring

128
Q

How do you know if a glucose molecule is D-glucose?

A

Bottom-most hydroxyl is on the right

129
Q

How do you determine if a glycosidic bond is alpha or beta?

A

By the hydroxyl position on the anomeric carbon

Alpha - hydroxyl down

Beta - hydroxyl up

130
Q

What is maltose comprised of?

A

glucose + glucose

131
Q

What enzyme catalyzes the reaction forming glycosidic linkages?

A

glycosyltransferase

132
Q

What is the main structure of bacterial cell walls (not membranes)?

A

peptidoglycan

note: it can hide bacteria from immune system by hiding surface antigens

133
Q

What are plant cell walls composed of?

A

cellulose

also dietary fiber for humans (can’t digest)

134
Q

What is a major component of fungal cell walls?

A

chitin

135
Q

What are the two types of starch?

A

amylose (alpha-1,4 glucoses) and amylopectin (alpha-1,6 glucoses)

136
Q

What types of bonds connect branched glycogen chains of glucose?

A

alpha-1,6-glycosidic linkages as formed by glycogen branching enzyme

137
Q

In gas chromatography, what molecules elute FIRST?

A

non-polar molecules // lower boiling point molecules

138
Q

What part of the kidney is the glomerular filtrate concentration greatest?

A

The medullary part of the collecting duct

139
Q

What types of molecules can freely pass through the cell membrane?

A

small, uncharged

planar, hydrophobic (even if large and cyclic)

140
Q

How can enzymes NOT alter a reaction?

A

by changing the *primary structure* of the substrate (note: they can change the shape of the substrate or the pH)

141
Q

What are the effects of aldosterone and where does it act?

A

Increases reabsorption of Na+, water follows osmotically

Increases blood volume and pressure

Acts on distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct

142
Q

What are the effects of ANP?

A

Decreases sodium reabsorption, decreasing water reabsorption

Decreases blood pressure

143
Q

What are the effects of antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)?

A

Increase water reabsorption by inserting aquaporins into collecting duct

Increase blood pressure

Lower blood osmolarity

144
Q

What is the effect of parathyroid hormone on the kidney?

A

Increases calcium reabsorption in distal convoluted tubule - no regulation effects on BP

145
Q

What direction are afferent and efferent arterioles going, respectively?

A

afferent - arriving at the organ

efferent - exiting the organ

146
Q

What elutes first in HPLC and RP-HPLC respectively?

A

HPLC - non-polar compounds elute first (polar stationary phase, non-polar mobile phase/eluent)

RP-HPLC - polar compounds elute first (non-polar stationary phase)

147
Q

In recrystallization, what is done to the solid that you want to analyze?

A

The solid is dissolved at high temperatures and then cooled and reprecipitated then filtered out

148
Q

What is a nuclear localization sequence?

A

A sequences that tags proteins for transport into the nucleus

149
Q

What is Ubiquination?

A

It tags a protein to be degraded by proteosomes

150
Q

What type of protein is denatured via reduction?

A

Cysteine residues due to di-sulfide bonds!!!

MCAT (6 decks)

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