Biochemistry Flashcards by

18:3 (6c,9c,12c)

γ-Linolenic acid

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Example of Secondary DNA Structure

hairpin, cruciform

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heterogeneous group of compounds related more by their physical rather than by their chemical properties

Lipids

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Positive result : Keller-Killani Test

Reddish-Brown color

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Positive Result: Hopkin’s Cole

Violet Junction

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Deficiency : 1,4-D-glucosidase (lysosomal)

Tissue Affected: liver, heart muscle

Pompe’s

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an enzyme that cuts the DNA at or near specific recognition nucleotide sequences

Restriction endonuclease (restriction enzyme)

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 essential in the formation of rhodopsin & the normal
functioning of the retina
 was the first fat-soluble vitamin discovered

Vitamin A

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Calciferol

Vitamin D

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6 carbons; most import sugar in plants

Hexose

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 is a synthetic substance formed by the reduction of tachysterol
 closely related to ergosterol

Dihydrotachysterol

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the acceleration of the reaction rate

over that for the noncatalyzed reaction

Catalytic Power

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Hydrates of carbon that are aldehyde or ketone derivatives of polyhydric alcohol

Carbohydrates

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MOA (Reverse Transcription):
didanosine (ddI), zidovudine/ azidothymidine (AZT), lamivudine (3TC), abacavir (ABC), zalcitabine (ddC), emtricitabine (FTC)

Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI)

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synthesis of RNA (rRNA, tRNA, or mRNA) using a DNA template

Transcription

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decrease the risk of neutral tube deffects

Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid)

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components of many enzymatic cofactors

FAD, NAD

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found in large quantities in brain and nerve tissue; composed of a fatty acid, phosphoric acid, choline, and sphingosine; ceramide with phosphate and choline

Sphingomyelin

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Nitrogenous bases purines?

A & G

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Positive result : Bial’s

Green Color (sometime blue)

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loss of one or more base pairs in a gene

Deletion

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Biological Function of Protein: Protective

fibrin, Immunoglobulin, interferons

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Deficiency:phosphorylase kinase

Tissue Affected:liver

Type VIII

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Found in the cytoplasm, centrioles, cilia, and

flagella

Microtubule

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thought to elongate Okazaki fragments of the lagging strand; with 3’→5’ exonuclease activity

Pol δ

Test for Pentoses

Bial's Test

mainly responsible for the turnover of the cell’s own proteins, but also contributes to the breakdown of foreign proteins

Ubiquitin/Proteosome system

Condition where the heme iron is +3 rather than +2; MetHgb cannot bind O2

Methemoglobinemia

sequence of amino acids in polypeptide chain

Primary Proteins

20:5 (5c,8c,11c,14c,17c); an ω3 fatty | acid; in fish oils

``` Timnodonic acid (Eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA) ```

similar to phospholipid, but possesses an ether link on the sn-1 carbon instead of the normal ester linkage in acylglycerols; usually the ether linkage is with an unsaturated alcohol;

Plasmalogen

can treat Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)

Group and Code:Tryptophan

Aromatic;W

Cofactor: Mg+2

hexokinase, glucose-6-phosphatase, pyruvate kinase

The stomach mechanically breaks up fat into smaller particles.

Fat Digestion

composed of glucose units linked α1→4; | produced by the hydrolysis of starch; a reducing sugar

Maltose

enzymes that cleave proteins at specific peptide bonds

Proteases

by oxidation of Fe+2 to Fe+3 by agents such as nitrates, sulfonamides, or endogenous products like ROS (reactive oxygen species)

Acquired Methemoglobinemia

Group and Code:Tyrosine

Aromatic;Y

alcohol is glycerol

Glycerophospholipids (phosphoglycerides) –

MOA (DNA Replication): acyclovir (ACV, a guanosine analogue) (herpes simplex virus)

Inhibition of DNA polymerase

“Branched Amino Audura” | Val, Leu, Ile

Maple Syrup urine Disease

Test for Proteins

Alkaloidal Reagent

Copper Deficiency

Depigmentation of Hair

– to break H-bonds and form ssDNA | – usu. 950 for 20 to 30 sec

Denaturation

Biological Function of Protein: Hormones

Insulin, HcG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)

Coenzyme : coenzyme A

acyl

the breakdown of glycogen (n) to glucose-1-phosphate and glycogen (n–1)

Glycogenolysis

anticancer agents of Type II topoisomerases

etoposide and teniposide

Use for cation or anion | exchange resins

Ion-exchange chromatography

alcohol is sphingosine

Sphingophospholipid (sphingolipid)

product of oxidation of the C6 hydroxy group of sugar

Uronic acid

Postive Result for Nitroprusside

Red

intramitochondrial NADH yields (?)

3 ATPs

combines IEF and SDS-PAGE

2D Electrophoresis

mutations in the α- or β-globin chain | promoting the formation of Hb M or MetHgb

Hereditary Methemoglobinemia

Diagnostic Enzymes: | Myocardial infarction

(1) Aspartate aminotransferase (AST or SGOT) | 2) Lactate dehydrogenase (isoenzymes

Edman degradation reagents

phenylisothiocyanate (alkaline) and anhydrous | trifluoroacetic acid

Biological Function of Protein: Contractility

Actin, Myosin

Test for W,H

Pauly's diazo (sulphanilic acid; HNO2)

DnaA protein, DNA | helicase, and ssDNA-binding (SSB) proteins

Pre-priming complex

Suicide inactivators: | 5-fluorouracil

inhibits thymidylate synthase

Group and Code:Isoleucine

Aliphatic;I

relaxes the | DNA from supercoiling

Topoisomerase (e.g., DNA gyrase)

Positive Result: Millon's

white ppt → red - nitrosation

Suicide inactivators: | disulfiram

aldehyde | dehydrogenase inhibitor

the accuracy of DNA the accuracy of DNA replication

fidelity

DNA that is dehydrated, shorter, right-handed

A-DNA

Test for Sulfur containing amino acid

Lead acetate

Examples of Mutagens

``` o Oxidants o Nitrosamines and nitrous acid o Alkylating agents o UV rays o Ionizing radiation ```

altered amino acid product; GAG to GTG (Glu→Val) in sickle-cell anemia

Missense Mutation

Vitamin B + C |  serve as a precursor of coenzyme

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)

Coenzyme : Thiamine pyrophosphate

aldehyde

facilitates breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids and monoglycerides.

Pancreatic lipase

the 3 contiguous bases in a molecule of mRNA that specify a particular amino acid in a polypeptide chain

Codon

Fumarate

F, Y

stimulation of glucose transport across the plasma membrane increases its availability for synthesis of fatty acids and glycerol from glycolytic pathway

Adipose Tissue

ATP-independent process that involves lysosomes (pH 3.8–5.0) and associated transport systems (endocytosis, autophagy, chaperon-mediated autophagy); for damaged organelles, cellular proteins, and “foreign materials” the cell contacts

Lysosomal system

relatively unreactive until they bind to the active site of a specific enzyme; also, mechanism-based inactivators

Suicide inactivators

subtle changes; requires DNA glycosylases

Base-excision repair (BER)

at physiological pH, usually exist as dipolar ions

Zwitterions; Amphoteric; Ampholytes

“wood sugar”

Xylose

widely distributed in fungi

Trehalose

Biological Function of Protein: Transport

Albumin, hemoglobin, lipoproteins

in which 2 or more polypeptide chains (subunits), each with its own tertiary structure, combine to form a larger assembly (protein complex)

Quaternary Protein

the basic hereditary unit that contains the information for making an RNA or a polypeptide

Gene

a complex organic/metalloorganic molecule

Coenzyme

Concept by which a tRNA can recognize more than one codon for a specific amino acid by allowing movement in the first base of the anticodon

Wobble Hypothesis

only 1 fatty acid attached to | glycerol

Lysophosphatidate

results from further folding, coiling, and aggregation of polypeptides that are induced by distant residues in the chain end; micellar effect

Tertiary Proteins

diphosphatidylglycerol; in mitochondria

Cardiolipin

lipid storage diseases

Lipidoses

the set of triplet codons specifying amino acids to be incorporated into polypeptide, plus three codons (UGA, UAG, UAA) specifying the terminus of such sequence of amino acids

Genetic code

Group and Code:Valine

Aliphatic;V

major natural form of Vitamin A

Retinol

Positive Result: Alkaloidal Reagent

Precipitate

the separation of DNA strands due to

(1) high temperature; | (2) very low salt concentration; (3) extreme pH

Suicide inactivators: neostigmine

acetylcholinesterase inhibitor

amine group bonded to the alpha carbon (carbon-2) of a carboxylic acid

α-amino acids

Hydrolysis of thioester to release succinate from succinyl-CoA; co- generation of GTP from GDP

Succinate thiokinase

larger than amylose; as high as 106 glucose residues linked α1→4 along the linear chain and α1→6 at branches occurring every 20 units

Amylopectin (α-amylose)

Keratan sulfate Type I

Abundant in cornea

the average number of nucleotides added by DNA polymerase per association/dissociation with the template

processivity

found in cell walls of fruits; chains of galacturonic acid residues linked α1→4 (some as methyl esters)

Pectin

Test for Lysine , free -NH2

Nitrous Acid (HCl, NaNO2)

Uptake of a charged tRNA at the A site

Elongation

esters of fatty acids with glycerol

Fats/Oils

also known as phosphogluconate pathway, hexose | monophosphate shunt, pentose phosphate shunt

Pentose Phosphate Pathway

Enzyme : formation of C–C, C–S, C–O, and C–N | bonds by condensation reactions coupled to ATP cleavage

Ligases

has 5’→3’ polymerase | activity, 3’→5’ exonuclease activity

(proofreading)

Seen in fatty acid catabolism; detoxification

Peroxisome

Known keto acids that can replace the amino acids in the diet.

Val,Leu,Ile

Carboxylation of pyruvate to give oxaloacetate, with consumption of ATP

Pyruvate decarboxylase

obtained by reduction of mannose; | diagnostic acid and osmotic diuretic

Mannitol

Oxidative decarboxylation of α- ketoglutarate to succinyl-CoA; co- generation of NADH from NAD+

α-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase

phospholipid without the alcohol

Phosphatidate

22:1 (13c); in rapeseed oil

Erucic acid

Deficiency:phosphorylase | Tissue Affected:liver

Her’s

contains GlcNAc with fewer N- sulfates than heparin; predominantly glucuronic acid (GlcA)

Heparan sulfate

Succinyl-CoA precursors

I, M, T, V

used as special dietary supplements

Vitamin

Positive result for silver nitrate

Precipitate

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Deficiency

Pernicious Anemia

3’→5’ exonuclease activity; used in DNA repair

DNA polymerase II

Group and Code:Alanine

Aliphatic A

requires energy for phosphorylation of glucose (ATP) | and activation of glucosyl residues to UDP-glucose (UTP)

Glycogenesis

contains ceramide and one or more sugars;

Glycosphingolipid

a coenzyme or metal ion that is very tightly or even covalently bound to the enzyme protein

Prosthetic group

Positive result : Molisch

Violet Junction

the synthesis of β-globin chains is | decreased or absent (point mutations)

β-thalassemias

Enzyme catalyzes asparagine from aspartate

Asparagine Synthetase

Vitamin D Indication

Hypoparathyroidism Nutritional Rickets Renal Osteodystrophy Hypocalcemia

Cell with Nucleus with an envelope

Eukaryote

rapid interconversion of constitutional isomers by a chemical reaction that results in formal migration of a proton, accompanied by a switch of a single bond and adjacent double bond

Tautomerization (tautomerism)

the endergonic processes required to maintain the living state

Anabolism

Binding of the mRNA to the smaller ribosomal | subunit

(16S rRNA)

contains primase; initiates DNA synthesis

Pol α

ound in association with several proteins as components of the ribosomes— the complex structures that serve as the sites for protein synthesis

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

most widely occurring sterol; a precursor to digestive and solubilizing agents, e.g., bile acids, and other biologically important molecules, such as adrenocortical hormones, sex hormones, D vitamins, cardiac glycosides, sitosterols (in plants), and some alkaloids membrane constituent

Cholesterol

Test for carboxylate

Silver nitrate

Test for Histidine

Knoop (aq. Br2, NH3)

Group and Code:Aspartate

Acidic;D

by Koshland; the functional groups may have to be moved into position for correct alignment after binding of the substrate; there is not necessarily a good steric fit initially

Induced Fit Model

Cephalin

(phosphatidylethanolamine) – | ethanolamine

not the reversal of glycogenesis (different set of enzymes)

Glycogenolysis

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid) Deficiency?

-Paresthesia of the Extremities or “Burning Foot Syndrome”

three distinct components of Nucleotides

Nitrogenous base Pentose Phosphate

defines the periphery of the cell

Plasma membrane

present in high amounts in myelin; e.g., sulfogalactosylceramide

Sulfatide

based on the migration of charged proteins in an electric field

Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE)

biological cataysts that increase the rate of reactions without being changed in the overall process

Enzymes

the packing of helices, bulges, and single-stranded coils into a stable and more or less compact body

Tertiary Structure (DNA/RNA)

Group and Code:Serine

Polar;S

Sanger’s method reagents

1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (FDNB), | dansyl chloride and dabsyl chloride

Examples of Anomers

α-D-glucopyranose and β-D-glucopyranose

– second messengers and membrane component | – points for biological recognition (as glycoside)

Sphingolipids

1 sugar unit (simple sugar)

Monosaccharides

Example of tautomerism

Aldose-ketose interconversions

for formation of intercellular collagen  healing of bone fractures  metabolism of tyrosine  antiscorbutic vitamin

Vitamin C

Known as the "powerhouse"; oxidative metabolism

Mitchondrion

most abundant biological macromolecules that occur in | all cells and all parts of cells

Proteins

lipids containing a fatty acid, sphingosine, and carbohydrate

Glycolipids (glycosphingolipid)

Deficiency: "branching enzyme" | Tissue Affected: liver

Andersen's

found in liver oil or other vegetable oil.

Oleovitamin A & D

composed of fructose units linked through β2→1 bonds

Inulin

18:3 (9c,12c,15c); one of | the EFA; an ω3 (omega-3) fatty acid

α-Linolenic acid

pyruvate | thereby produced is transported into the ?

mitochondria

Nucleotides of purines end in (1); | those of pyrimidines end in (2).

–idine | –idylate

Lecithin

(phosphatidylcholine) – choline

a set of experimental methods in molecular biology that are used to assemble recombinant DNA molecules and to direct their replication within host organisms

Molecular Cloning

where an inhibitor binds at a site distinct from the substrate active site, but binds to either E or the ES complex; lower Vmax, higher Km and slope

Mixed Inhibition

a short, RNA strand that binds to ssDNA to start replication; synthesized by primase (DnaG)

RNA primer

an α1→6-linked polyglucan that is formed from sucrose by the action of a transglucosylase dextran sucrose) enzyme system of Leuconostoc mesenteroides; plasma expander (high m.w.); reduces blood viscosity (low m.w.)

Dextran

``` having stereocenters (chiral carbons) ```

Stereoisomerism

Test for F,Y,W

Xanthoproteic (conc. HNO3)

main food reserve in plants; composed of glucopyranose units; about 25% amylose and 75% amylopectin

Starch

Factors that Affect Enzyme Kinetics

substrate concentration temperature pH

a genetic disease in which an | individual has inherited the allele for sickle-cell Hgb (Hgb S) from both parents;

Sickle-cell anemia

prostaglandins (PGs), prostacyclins (PGIs), and thromboxanes (TXs)

Prostanoids

the α carbon is a ___________(except in glycine); | optically active

Chiral Center

Diagnostic Enzymes: | Acute pancreatitis

(1) Amylase | (2) Lipase

anticancer agents of Type I topoisomerases

camptothecin, topotecan, and irinotecan

Non-protein inorganic ions

Cofactor

proportionate to blood glucose; about 5%; measurement of HbA1c provides useful information for the management of diabetes mellitus (DM); blood glucose concentration for 6–8 weeks

Glycosylated HbA1c

the combination of sphingosine plus fatty acid

Ceramide

specific for fructose

GLUT 5

Lactate produces pyruvate via

lactate dehydrogenase

FADH2 yields?

2 ATPs

MOA (Transcription): | rifampin

Inhibition of DNA-dependent RNA polymerase

altered codon encodes the same amino | acid; or in noncoding region

Silent Mutation

Group and Code:Asparagine

Polar;N

similar to structure of chondroitin sulfate, except that in place of a GlcA in β1→3 linkage to GalNAc, it contains an iduronic acid (IdA) in an α1→3 linkage to GalNAc; in cornea

Dermatan sulfate

“fruit sugar”; usually obtained by inversion of aqueous solutions of sucrose and subsequent separation from glucose; food for diabetic; sweetener (half as sweet as glucose)

Fructose

Alcohols in Phospholipids

o choline o ethanolamine o inositol o serine

most rapidly reduced vitamin

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)

Cofactor: K+

pyruvate kinse

Glycine is formed by?

Glyoxylate and Glutamate/Alanine Via glycine transaminases; | Choline and Serine via SHMT

Test for arginine

Sakaguchi (α-naphthol, NaOBr)

required in the transfer of aminogroups & decarboxylase of amino acid

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Site lipid (and carbohydrate) synthesis

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Group and Code:Proline

Aliphatic;P

present in plants and fungi; important | precursor of vitamin D (provitamin D2)

Ergosterol

Group and Code:Cysteine

Polar;C

DNA high-salt conditions, longer, left-handed

Z-DNA

structurally related to Vitamin A

Retinoic Acid

MOA (Reverse Transcription): | efavirenz, nevirapine, delavirdine, etravirine, rilpivirine

Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors

yields 2 or 3 different fatty acids

Mixed Triglycerides

the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS)

component of bacterial cell walls; alternating β1→4 linked GlcNAc and N- acetylmuramic acid (O-lactyl-N-acetylglucosamine) residues cross-linked via peptide structures

Peptidoglycan

stimulation of glucose transport by insulin increases its availability for glycolysis and glycogen synthesis

Muscle

releases | TGs in fat and muscle cells

Very Low–Density Lipoprotein (VLDL)

Glucose Transporter : liver and pancreatic cells; high Km | high glucose levels for absorption

GLUT 2

Eukaryotic Ribosomes

40S / 60S

action of enzyme on a limited | set of substrates

Substrate Specificity

Amino acid formed from Methionine and Serine?

Cysteine

– similar to replication – uses dNTPs (with equal amount of dA, dT, dG, and dC) and thermostable polymerases such as Taq and Pfu polymerase – usu. 75–800C; depends on the optimal temperature of the polymerase

Extension/Elongation

Diagnostic Enzymes: | Liver diseases

γ-Glutamyl transpeptidase

Types of Supercoiling

positively supercoiled negatively supercoiled relaxed

Example of α-helix

α-keratin, hemoglobin, myoglobin

laxative; composed of galactose linked | β1→4 to fructose

Lactulose

have a central moiety, _____, which is the primary | immunostimulatory fragment of LPS

Lipid A

the degree of DNA strand winding (supercoiling)

DNA topology

cut from the end of the chain, releasing single nucleotides

Exonucleases

Packaging and processing of marcromolules takes place

Golgi apparatus

a DNA molecule used as a vehicle to artificially carry foreign genetic material into another cell, where it can be replicated (cloning vector) and/or expressed (expression vector); most common, plasmids

Vector

Prokaryotic Ribosomes

30S / 50S

Found lipid bilayer; | integral/transmembrane proteins; Na+/K+ ATPase

Plasma Membrane

an inheritable change or variation in a gene

Mutation

Formation of peptide bond between the amino acid at the A site and the acylated tRNA in the P site

Elongation

Glycosphingolipid in the (brain and other nervous tissue)

galactosylceramide

composed of 5S RNA, 28S RNA, | 5.8S RNA, and 46 proteins

60S subunit

derived from eicosa- (C20) polyenoic fatty acids

Eicosanoids

the coupling of electron transfer reactions through respiratory complexes, with phosphorylation of ADP to ATP

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Cofactor : Zn+2

carbonic anhydrase, alcohol dehydrogenase, carboxypeptidases A and B

used for for identifying the N-terminal residue

Sanger’s method

utilizes a set of restriction endonucleases, DNA ligases, appropriate vectors, and suitable cloning systems (often, E. coli)

Molecular Cloning

used to amplify a single copy or a few copies of a piece of DNA generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence

Polymerase Chain Reaction

Test for monosaccharides

Barfoed's Test

agents that cause mutations

Mutagens

framsehift mutations, e.g., in Huntington’s disease (CAG), and fragile X syndrome (CGG)

“Indels”

Deficiency:phosphorylase | Tissue Affected:muscle

McArdle’s

bile salts is know as?

lecithin-cholesterol acyl transferase, | LCAT)

has 5’→3’ polymerase activity, 3’→5’ exonuclease activity (proofreading), and 5’→3’ exonuclease activity (nick translation during DNA repair); removes RNA primer and fills gaps on lagging strand; low processivity

DNA polymerase I

the complete set of genes, control sequences, and other genetic information for a cell

Genome

replaces the mismatch base on the unmethylated daughter strand; Mut proteins on GATC sequences (E. coli) or CpG islands (mammals)

Methyl-mediated mismatch repair

insulin-dependent (Tissue)

Muscle and adipose tissue

Test for Ketones

Seliwanoff’s test /Tauber's Test

Diagnostic Enzymes: | Viral hepatitis

Alanine aminotransferase (ALT or SGPT)

20:4 (5c,8c,11c,14c)

Arachidonic acid

Group and Code:Phenylalanine

Aromatic;F

muscle and adipose tissue (located | in the interior of fat cells)

GLUT 4

Suicide inactivators: | D-cycloserine

inhibits alanine racemase

the characteristic pH at which the net electric charge is zero

isoelectric point (isoelectric pH, pI)

without O2 pyruvate instead changes to lactate, a step in which NAD+ can be replenished

homolactate fermentation

the process of glycogen synthesis, in which glucose molecules are added to chains of glycogen for storage

Glycogenesis

contains same sugar | units

Homopolysaccharide

unwinds DNA at the replication fork

Helicase

Translation (Process)

Activation of Amino Acid > Initiation > Elongation > Termination

has 16S RNA subunit and 21 | proteins

30S subunit

can be used in the management of hyperlipidemia

Vitamin B3(Niacin)

activating intermediates in metabolic reactions

UDP

MOA (DNA Replication): | metronidazole (Clostridium difficile)

Free-radical mediated inhibition of DNA synthesis

isomers that differ in their topology (amount and type of supercoiling)

Topoisomers

stop codons (UGA, UAG, UAA)

Nonsense Mutation

Cofactor: Fe+2/Fe+3

cytochrome oxidase, catalase, peroxidase

maintains the integrity of epithelial membranes

Vitamin A

releases TGs in fat cells, skeletal | and heart muscle cells (lipoprotein lipase)

Chylomicrons

Avoid taking Wheat Bread while taking _______-, | -fiber rich food can decrease absorption of __________

Calcium

Type of enzyme that catalyzes phenylalanine to tyrosine

Phenylalanine hydroxylase

distributes | cholesterol widely to hepatic and non-hepatic cells

Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL)

free FAs, monoglycerides, and free cholesterol in the?

Small Intestine

Information flows from DNA to mRNA to proteins (FLOW)

DNA Replication → Transcription → Translation

Test for Tyrosine

Millon' s(Hg+2 in HNO3)

Enzyme : transfer of electrons (hydride or | H atoms)

Oxidoreductases

 animal species  may be formed by irradiation of 7- dehydrocholesterol & resembles ergocalciferol in appearance & physical properties.

Cholecalciferol (Vit D3)

a complete, catalytically active enzyme together with its bound coenzyme and/or metal ions

Holoenzyme

Keratan sulfate Type II

found along with chondroitin sulfate attached to hyaluronic acid in loose connective tissue

Group and Code:Leucine

Aliphatic;L

for transport of triglycerides and cholesterol throughout the bloodstream amphipathic

Lipoproteins

both caloric intake and specific amino acids are deficient

Marasmus

Suicide inactivators: | chloramphenicol

Inhibits peptidyl transferase

derivatives of a complex amino alcohol,

sphingosine

Proline is from ______(reverse of proline catabolism)

Glutamine

Biological Function of Protein: Receptor

Nicotinic/adrenergic receptor

occur in greatest proportion in dried yeast

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)

Fatty acids that contains two or more double bonds

Polyunsaturated (polyethenoid, polyenoic) acids

Positive result for Xanthproteic

Yellow

(TCA) 4 of the 8 steps are oxidation, producing NADH (_ATP) and FADH2 (_ATP)

NADH - 3 ATP | FADH2 - 2 ATP

α-Ketoglutarate precursors

R, E, Q, H, P

24:1 (15c); in cerebrosides

Nervonic acid

nonfermentable sugar alcohol; prevents dental | caries; diabetic sweetener

Xylitol

Diagnostic Enzymes: | Metastatic carcinoma of the prostate

Phosphatase , acid

transports both glucose and fructose; | small intestine and colon; absorption of sugar from the gut

GLUT 7

product of oxidation of the carbonyl group of sugar

Aldonic acid

contains different | sugar units

Heteropolysaccharide

DNA sequences and structures located at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes; have tandem repeats of TTAGGG; made resistant to cellular nucleases by stacked G-quadruplexes

Telomeres

Favored point of hydrolysis of sugar to monosaccharides

1,4 glycosidic bond

which the genome is stored and replicated; with envelope (eukaryote) or without envelope (prokaryote)

Nucleus | Nucleoid (Bacteria)

takes place in the mitochondria, inside the inner | mitochondrial membrane

Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (TCA Cycle)

esters of fatty acids containing | groups in addition to an alcohol and a fatty acid

Complex Lipids

Group and Code:Histidine

Basic;H

include fatty acids, glycerol, steroids (cholesterol, bile acids), alcohols (aside from glycerol and sterols), fatty aldehydes and ketone bodies, hydrocarbons (terpenes), lipid-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, K), and hormones

Precursor and derived lipids

Zinc Deficiency

Alopecia Infertility Poor wound healing Poor growth Poor resistant to infection

enzymes that can interconvert topoisomers

Topoisomerases

couples exergonic reactions of nutrient breakdown

Catabolism

Positive test for Benedicts (Moderate Amount)

Yellow/ Yellow Orange

Pyruvate precursors

A, C, G, S, W

to determine the isoelectric point (pI) of a protein; uses ampholytes in gels

Isoelectric Focusing (IEF)

Types of pentose (nucleotides)

Ribose / deoxyribose

D-glucitol; humectant and sweetener (with | laxative properties)

Sorbitol

Inhibition that is affected by the concentration | of the substrate

Reversible Inhibition

degrade peptides to free amino acids

Peptidases

the basic structural and functional unit of all living | organisms

Cell

Group and Code: Glutamate

Acidic;E

lactate is produced in the ?

muscle or RBC

(Glycolysis) glucose is converted to_______, which is ready for oxidation

fructose-1,6- biphosphate

inhibitor binds covalently with or destroy a functional group on an enzyme that is essential for the enzyme activity, or those that form a particularly stable noncovalent association

Irreversible inhibition

replicates mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA); | with 3’→5’ exonuclease activity

Pol γ

the region that binds the substrates (cofactors, prosthetic groups, etc.) and contains the residues necessary to bind the substrate or directly participate in the reaction

Active site

metabolic regulators or signaling agents

cAMP

Enzyme responsible for the conversion of Fe+3 to Fe+2 in Hgb

Deficiency of NADH-methemoglobin reductase

Test for Cysteine

Nitroprusside

conversion of dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) | to glycerol-3-phosphate (via glycerol phosphate pathway) to pass through the mitochondrial membrane – costs?

1 ATP

contain only amino acid residues and no other chemical constituents

Simple Proteins

18:1 (9c); most common

Oleic acid

cuts one strand, rotate, and reclose; inhibited by anticancer agents camptothecin, topotecan, and irinotecan

Type I Topoisomerases

Formation of aminoacyl adenylate by ?

aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases

Components of Molisch Reagent

α-naphthol and conc. H2SO4

Test for deoxysugars

Keller-Killani Test

Diagnostic Enzymes: | Bone disorders, obstructive liver diseases

Phosphatase, alkaline (isoenzymes)

Nucleic Acid is linked via ?

phosphodiester bonds (5' , 3')

the internal volume bounded by the plasma membrane; composed of an aqueous cytosol and a variety of suspended particles (called organelles) with specific functions

Cytoplasm

synthesis of a polypeptide chain in a sequence specified by mRNA; carried out by the ribosome

Translation

(Glycolysis)fructose-1,6-biphosphate is split into two 3- carbon fragments

DHAP and glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate;

the native structure is determined only by the protein’s amino acid sequence

Anfinsen’s dogma (thermodynamic hypothesis)

hereditary hemolytic diseases in which an imbalance occurs in the synthesis of globin chains; single-gene disorder

Thalassemias

single-stranded oligonucleotides (15 to 30 bases) complementary to the template strand of the gene that is to be replicated; 5’ primer (forward) and 3’ primer (reverse)

Primer

Enzyme that cleaves F, Y ,W from the porcine stomach

Pepsin (Amino)

refers to the mixture of RUTIN and HESPERIDIN

Vitamin P (PERMEABLITY FACTOR)

cuts both strands; inhibited by anticancer agents etoposide and teniposide; also, by antibacterial agents, e.g., nalidixic acid (quinolones)

Type II Topoisomerases

include rofecoxib and celecoxib

selective COX-2 inhibitors

Selenium Deficiency

RBC Fragility

Example of Fibrous proteins

keratin, collagen, elastin, and fibroin

``` the smallest (4S) of the 3 major types of RNA molecules; an “adaptor” molecule ```

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

prosthetic group in pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, and transketolase

thiamine pyrophosphate

Positive result : Osazone

Yellow crystal w/ phenylhydrazine HCl

Types of Nitrogenous Base:

Purine and pyrimidine

Pur→Pur (or Pyr→Pyr); e.g., deamination of C (U “read” as T):A

Transition

– binding of the primer to the complementary sequence on the ssDNA template – usu. 50–600C; depends on the Tm of the primers

Annealing

main constituent in plant cell walls; composed of glucose units linked β1→4 in a linear chain

Cellulose

Glutamate is from the reductive amination of ___________ by glutamate dehydrogenase

α-ketoglutarate

Prion disease is responsible for what type of implication?

transmissible spongiform encephalopathies

extramitochondrial NADH (generated in the cytosol) yields only?

2 ATPs

Test for the presence of galactose

Mucic

“milk sugar”; composed of galactose linked | β1→4 to glucose

Lactose

the overall process through which living systems acquire and utilize free energy to carry out their functions

Metabolism

separation of proteins from solvents because of the larger size of proteins

Dialysis

Positive result : Seliwanoff/Taubers

red color with resorcinol and conc. HCl

Enzyme : hydrolysis reactions

Hydrolases

Cell without Nucleus with an envelope

Prokaryote

Group and Code:Glutamine

Polar;Q

MOA (Translation): | tetracyclines, aminoglycosides

Inhibition of the 30S ribosomal subunit

Coenzyme : NAD

H-

Brain, liver, RBCs is affected by insulin? True or False

False

most common sterol in plants

β-Sitosterol

Test for glycoproteins

Molisch (conc. H2SO4, α- naphthol)

removes the RNA primer fragments

RNAse H

results when the individual is weaned onto a starchy diet poor in protein. (Grains are poor sources of essential amino acids Trp and Lys.)

Kwashiorkor

Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid) Deficiency

Glossitis | Megaloblastic Anemia

Positive test for Benedicts (Traces of Sugar)

Green

Deficiency : glucose 6-phosphatase (or in transport system in endoplasmic reticulum) Tissue Affected: liver, kidney

Von Gierke’s

Positive result for Ninhydrine?

Blue

all enzymes are proteins except?

Ribosomes

interact with biological membranes; helix bundle or beta barrel; integral or amphitropic

Membrane proteins

saccharum or “table sugar”; composed of glucose linked α1→β2 to fructose; occurs abundantly in the free state in plants; a non-reducing sugar

Sucrose

conditions that result from mutations in Hgb

Hemoglobinopathies

Group and Code: Lysine

Basic;K

synthetic form of Vitamin K1

Phytomenadione

18:2 (9c,12c); one of the | “essential fatty acids” (EFA)

Linoleic acid

``` o capping of 7-methylguanine at the 5’ end o poly(A) tail at the 3’ end ```

Transcript Processing

differ in configuration at only one stereogenic center;

Epimers

the stable, repeating | conformational pattern in a polymer

Secondary Structure (DNA/RNA)

Example of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies

- bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or “mad- cow disease) - Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) and Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD) - Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome - kuru

complex, high-molecular-weight; hydrolyzed into many sugar units

Polysaccharide

esters of fatty acids and glycerol 3-phosphate or a derivative thereof, such as a phosphate diester bridged to another alcoholic group – main lipid constituents of membranes

Phospholipids

where an inhibitor binds at a site distinct from the substrate active site and binds only to the ES complex; lower Vmax and Km, but same double-reciprocal slope

Uncompetitive Inhibition

linear; 1000–2000 glucopyranose units linked α1→4; more soluble in water than amylopectin

Amylose (β-amylose)

results upon hydrolysis of sucrose (by acid or invertase) and consists of equimolar quantities of glucose and fructose

Invert sugar

complex glycosphingolipid derived from glucosylceramide that contain one or more molecules of sialic acid (neuraminic acid is the principal sialic acid found in human tissues)

Ganglioside

Pentose Phosphate Pathway, produces __________required for the biosynthesis of nucleotides

ribose 5-phophate

Used for gel filtration; size

Size-exclusion chromatography

Oxidation of malate to oxaloacetate; co- generation of NADH from NAD+

Malate dehydrogenase

spherical (“globe-like”) proteins; water-soluble/colloidal;

Globular proteins (spheroproteins)

used in the prevention of degenerative changes in the central nervous system.

Vitamin B Complex

synthesized in the liver from cholesterol; | cholic acid, chenodesoxycholic acid; desoxycholic acid, lithocholic acid

Bile Acids

enantiomers (non-super- imposable mirror-images); the D/L-system is often used

Optical isomers

22:6 (4c, 7c,10c,13c,16c,19c); an ω3 fatty acid; in fish oils; found in phospholipids in brain

Cervonic acid (Docosahexaenoic acid, DHA)

contain the cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene (CPPP) nucleus

Steroids

Oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate; co-generation of NADH from NAD+

Isocitrate dehydrogenase

where an inhibitor binds at a site distinct from the substrate active site, but binds to either E or the ES complex with the same affinity; lower Vmax, but usually same Km

Noncompetititve Inhibition

the ratio of kcat and Km when [S] << Km

Specificity constant

Coenzyme : CO2

biocytin

catalytic RNA molecules

Ribozymes

Test for Tryptophan

Hopkin's Cole(glyoxylic acid)

indicates the | position of the initiation codon on the mRNA

Shine-Dalgarno sequence

glycogen branches are catabolized by the sequential removal of glucose monomers via ?

phosphorolysis (glycogen phosphorylase)

Test for amino acid?

Ninhydrin

Coenzyme : pyridoxal phosphate

Amino group

composed of 5S and 23S RNA subunits and 31 proteins

50S subunit

the protein part of the enzyme

Apoenzyme (apoprotein)

Positive result for Nitrous Acid

Gas (N2) - Diazotization

the sequence of nucleotide residues, when covalently linked in a linear chain in a polynucleotide

Primary Structure (DNA/RNA)

esters of fatty acids and glycerols

Triglycerides

Glutamine turns to _____(Hydrophobic); the blood contains man long, thin, crescent-shaped RBCs; deoxygenated Hgb S becomes insoluble

Valine

consists of unbranched chain of repeating disaccharide units containing GlcA and GlcNAc; in synovial fluid, vitreous body of the eye, cartilage and loose connective tissues

Hyaluronic acid

Deficiency:glycogen synthase | Tissue Affected:liver

Type IX

nutrient; obtained by controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of starch

Dextrose (D-glucose)

restores modified bases while they are still attached to the DNA strand; DNA photolyase (bacteria)

Direct repair

induces the synthesis of gluconeogenic enzymes; represses the synthesis of glycolytic enzymes

glucagon

Biological Function of Protein: Structural

Elastin, Keratin, Collagen

has 5’→3’ polymerase activity and 3’→5’ exonuclease activity; synthesizes DNA in the leading strand continuously; elongates from the RNA primer to another RNA of an Okazaki fragment in the lagging strand; high processivity

DNA polymerase III

Where is glycine synthesise?

Liver cytosol

obtained by incomplete hydrolysis of starch or by controlled acid hydrolysis of corn starch; contains dextrose with dextrins, maltose and water

Liquid glucose

the tendency of the substrate and the enzyme to dissociate; may be approximated by Km when k-1 >> k2

Dissociation constant (Kd)

water-dwelling organisms convert nitrogen is to ammonia

ammonotelic

Suicide inactivators: | organoarsenicals

inhibitor of pyruvate | dehydrogenase

aturally occurring pyridine derivative that prevents Pellagra

Vitamin B3(Niacin)

yields 3 molecules of one fatty acid

Simple Triglycerides

Oxaloacetate

N, D

has an 18S RNA and 33 proteins

40S subunit

usually straight-chain carboxylic acids that contain an even number of carbon atoms

Fatty Acids

D-ribulose and D-xylulose; β- | D-glucopyranose and β-D-mannopyranose are examples of?

Epimers

due to excessive immune response

“toxic shock”

(Glycolysis)glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is oxidized to ?

pyruvate

Group and Code: Glycine

Aliphatic;G

22:5 (7c,10c,13c,16c,19c); an ω3 fatty acid; in fish oils; found in phospholipids in brain

``` Clupanodonic acid (Docosapentaenoic acid, DPA) ```

in the cells of the Liver tissues (G6P→glucose→?)

bloodstream via GLUT2

Termination Codons

UAG, UGA, UAA

fills the nicks

DNA ligase

due to deficiency in G6PD or any other disruption in the pentose phosphate pathway; sulfhydryl groups on the Hgb may be oxidized, destabilizing it, and causing it to denature and aggregate (this can lead to rupture of cell membrane)

Hemolytic anemia

Enzyme that cleave internal bonds

Endopeptidases

Chromium Deficiency

Glucose Intolerance Peripheral Neuropathy | Metabolic Encephalopathy

Information flows from DNA to mRNA to proteins

Central Dogma

Oxidation of succinate to fumarate; flavoprotein is subsequently regenerated by reduction of CoQ

Succinate dehydrogenase

Aspartate is formed via transamination of

oxaloacetate

result from impaired synthesis of Hgb

Iron-deficiency

– also known as phosphogluconate pathway, hexose monophosphate shunt, pentose phosphate shunt – alternative to glycolysis for glucose metabolism (about 10% in adipocytes, near 0% in muscle) – no ATP is directly consumed or produced

Pentose Phosphate Pathway

``` accumulation of neurotoxic peptide amyloid β (Aβ) and neurofibrillary tangles inside neurons (tau, τ protein) ```

Alzheimer’s disease

introduction of one or more base pairs into a sequence

Insertion

esters of fatty acids with higher | molecular weight monohydric alcohol

Waxes

glucose moves via facilitative transporters from high concentration to lower concentration in the blood; do not bind Na+

Facilitative glucose transporters

trans-4-Hydroxyproline is formed via hydroxylation of _____________ by ____________ (peptidyl hydroxylase); α-KG, then, is decarboxylated to succinate

peptide- bound proline | prolyl hydroxylase

Enzyme : addition of groups to double bonds, or | formation of double bonds by removal of groups

Lyases

best supplement recommended for strict vegetarian

Vitamin B12

Non-essential amino acid formed via hydroxylation of peptide-bound lysine by lysyl hydroxylase

5-Hydroxylysine

Found in Organelle support, cell shape, locomotion

Cytoskeleton

proteins that assist the noncovalent folding and unfolding and the assembly or disassembly of macromolecular structures; heat- shock proteins (HSPs)

Molecular chaperones

Positive Result : Sakaguchi

Red

DnaG + pre-priming complex

Primosome

Binding of the charged tRNA at the AUG codon of the mRNA template

(anticodon loop)

MOA (Reverse Transcription): | adenylate analogues: tenofovir, adefovir

Nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (ntRTI)

Cofactor : Mn+2

arginase, ribonucleotide reductase

contain permanently associated non-amino acid chemical components (prosthetic group)

Conjugated Proteins

Type of Amino acid that must be obtained from the diet

Essential Amino Acid | H. MATTILL V.P

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Deficiency

- Hypochromic microcystis anemia - Resemble Niacin & Riboflavin abnormalities - Neurologic Abnormalities - Tryptophan loading dose maybe used for its diagnosis

Oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA; co- generation of NADH from NAD+

Pyruvate dehydrogenase

Enzyme that cleaves F, Y, W from the bovine pancreas

Chymotrypsin (Carboxy)

the principal sterol in feces

Coprostanol

equivalent to the number of substrate molecules converted to product in a given unit of time on a single enzyme molecule when the enzyme is saturated with substrate

Turnover number (kcat)

agar that yields d- and l-galactose on hydrolysis

Agarose

Hydration of fumarate to give malate

Fumarase

Deficiency: phosphofructokinase | Tissue Affected:muscle

Tarui’s

Isomerization of citrate to isocitrate

Aconitase

where an inhibitor competes for the active site of an enzyme; same Vmax, but higher Km and double-reciprocal slope; e.g., methanol poisoning and treatment with ethanol

Competitive Inhibition

MOA (Translation): macrolides, clindamycin, linezolid, chloramphenicol, streptogramins

Inhibition of the 50S ribosomal subunit

nutritionally semiessential

Histidine and Arginine

Place where ribosomes are produced

Nucleolus

Positive result : Fehling's

Brick red precipitate

Positive Result: Molish

Purple ring at junction

5 carbons; common in nature

Pentose

consists of repeating disaccharide units containing GcA and GalNAc, which is substituted with sulfate at either its 4’ or its 6’ position; in cartilage, tendons, ligaments and walls of aorta

Chondroitin sulfate

esters of fatty acids with various | alcohols

Simple Lipids

is converted to calciferol upon exposure to | ultraviolet light

7-Dehydrocholesterol

16:1 (9c)

Palmitoleic acid

must be supplemented in poisonings caused by Cycloserin & Isoniazid

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Implication due to accumulation of these insoluble, spontaneously aggregating proteins (amyloids)

Amyloid diseases

a precursor of vitamin A which does not occur In plants, | but in its place are compound that are converted into Vitamin A in the small animal body

Beta-carotene

carries genetic information from the nuclear DNA to the cytosol; template for protein synthesis

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Known is Japanese isinglass

Agar

20–25% excreted as urea, Release nitrogen as uric acid in the form of semisolid guano

ureotelic

Test for reducing sugar but not ketone

Fehling’s test

5’→3’ exonuclease activity

(nick translation during DNA repair);

Coenzyme : FAD/FMN

electron

contiguous non-overlapping groups of three nucleotides or codons in a polynucleotide, used to specify a polypeptide sequence; specified by an initiation (start) codon AUG

Reading frame

Enzyme : group transfer reactions

Transferases

natural form of Vitamin K1

Phylloquinone

defect in the activity of one or more catabolic | enzymes, particularly in sphingolipid and sterol metabolism

Lipidoses

due to a deficiency in aldolase B; results in the buildup of fructose-1- phosphate will deplete the local pool of ATP and inorganic phosphate; symptoms include bloating, nausea, and vomiting; eventually, severe damage to the liver and kidney can occur

Hereditary fructose intolerance

Process of transferring information to DNA for conservation of inherited traits.

Replication

the process of recycling proteins into their constituent amino acids, for reuse by the cell

Protein Turnover

Formed via transamination of pyruvate; transfer of α- amino group from glutamate by transaminase

Alanine

COX inhibits the formation of a peroxide and a cyclopentane ring on arachidonic acid

Cyclo-oxygenase (COX) Inhibition

Pur→Pyr (or Pyr→Pur); e.g., deamination of A (hypoxanthine “read” as C):G

Transversion

lack of Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), which is required for the hydroxylation of Pro and Lys in collagen by prolyl and lysyl hydroxylases;

Scurvy

Pancreatic and intestinal wall _______break down cholesterol esters to free cholesterol and fatty acids.

esterases

based on solubility (“salting out” using | ammonium sulfate) and size/charge (column chromatography)

Fractionation

Positive Result : Knoop

blue or violet

Fatty acids that contain one double bond

Monounsaturated (monoethenoid, mono- enoic) acids

Ubiquitous; constitutive in all tissues makes hormones, i.e., PGs to keep the stomach lining intact and the kidneys functioning properly

COX-1

Known as the control center

Nucleus

Site of protein synthesis (ribosomes)

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

thought to elongate the leading strand; | with 3’→5’ exonuclease activity

Pol ε

Biological Function of Protein: Regulatory

Calmodulin, transcription factors

Glycosphingolipid in the (extraneural tissues)

glucosylceramide

Positive result for Lead Acetate

Black (PbS)

Mutation (Process)

Substitution > Deletion > Insertion

DHAP is converted to (Glycolysis)gyceraldehyde-3- phosphate by

triose phosphate isomerase

Known as "splitting sugar" main catabolic pathway for glucose (and other sugars), which yields pyruvate and ATP

Glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhof Pathway)

Positive Result : Pauly's diazo

red | - diazotization and coupling (azo dye)

the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors: pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, glucogenic amino acids, and fatty acids

Gluconeogenesis

Nucleosides of purines end in (1); | those of pyrimidines end in (2).

–osine | –idine

Enzyme : transfer of groups within molecules to | yield isomeric forms

Isomerases

a purified mixture of dextrose (≥93% dextrose)

Dextrates

mammalian carbohydrate storage molecule; analogous to amylopectin in structure; larger and with more frequent branching (about every 10 residues)

Glycogen

18:1 (9t); in hydrogenated fat

Elaidic acid

plant steroid derived from Ergosterol

Ergocalciferol (Vit D2)

Charging of tRNA at the CCA end (3’ end) with aminoacyl-tRNA to form

aminoacyl-tRNA

long | protein filaments shaped like rods or wires; structural or storage; inert and water-insoluble; not easily denatured

Fibrous proteins (scleroproteins)

in the cells of the muscle (G6P for glycolysis→ ?)

Contraction

Diagnostic Enzymes: Hepatolenticular degeneration disease)

Ceruloplasmin

removes entire oligonucleotide; uses UV-specific endonuclease (uvrABC excinuclease in E. coli)

Nucleotide-excision repair (NER)

in nucleotides, the nucleoside is _______ on the _______ of sugar

(1) Phosphorylated | (2) Hydroxyl groups

the breakdown of the tertiary structure of a protein; precipitation or loss of catalytic activity; excessive heat or extreme pH values

Denaturation

free energy carrier for reactions , transport, work and other activities

ATP, GTP

General test for Carbohydrates

Molisch Test/Osazone formation

emulsify fats in the small intestine → micelles.

Bile salts

Used to know the sequence short peptides;

Edman degradation

Example of β-pleated sheet

silk fibroin, amyloid β or | amyloid plaque

Glucose Transporter : Brain

GLUT 1

The substrate concentration that produces half- maximal velocity

Km value or Michaelis constant

carries out telomere synthesis in eukaryotes

Telomerase

the nucleosome which consists of 8 histone molecules and 146 nucleotide pairs of DNA

Quaternary Structure

Condensation of oxaloacetate with acetyl-CoA

Citrate synthase

Positive test for Benedicts | Big amount of sugar

Red orange or red

Inositide

(phosphatidylinositol) – inositol

Cofactor: Cu+2

cytochrome oxidase

the ability of certain anticocon to pair w/ codons that differ at the third base.

Wobble

lipids containing, in addition to fatty acids and an alcohol, a phosphate residue; frequently have nitrogen bases and other substituents

Phospholipids

Coenzyme : tetrahydrofolate

one-carbon groups

Biological Function of Protein: Catalyst

Enzymes

reductions in the amount of RBCs or hemoglobin (Hgb) in the blood;

Anemia

Enzyme that turns glutamate to Glutamine

Glutamine synthetase

differ only in configuration at the hemiacetal or hemiketal carbon (anomeric carbon);

Anomers

Example of Globular proteins

hemoglobin, immunoglobulin, α-, β-, and γ- globulins, albumin, actin and tubulin, and many enzymes

Glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhof Pathway) takes place in?

Cytosol

in ribonucleosides and 2’-deoxyribonucleosides, D- | ribose or 2-deoxy- D-ribose, respectively, is linked via a β-N-glycosidic bond to ______?

N-9 of purine | N-1 of a pyrimidine

“scavenges” unwanted, excess cholesterol, partly from cell breakdown, back to liver for excretion

High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL)

major constituent in shells of crustaceans; similar in structure to cellulose; composed of β1→4 linked N-acetylglucosamine residues (GlcNAc)

Chitin

Used in the ligand cross-linked to beads

Affinity chromatography

known as “waste basket”; breaks down macromolecules and digests worn out cell components

Lysosome

Coenzyme : coenzyme B12

H and alkyl

due to deficiency in thiamine (vitamin B1) in the diet; causes both neurologic and cardiovascular symptoms, including edema and heart enlargement

Beri-beri

by Emil Fischer; the substrate must fit into the active site of the enzyme precisely so that functional groups align properly and there is a good steric fit

Lock-and-Key Model (Rigid Template Model)

discontinous stretches in which the lagging | strand is initially synthesized during DNA replication

Okazaki Fragments

Phosphatidylserine

serine

following massive crush injury, myoglobin is released from ruptured muscle fibers and appears in the urine; dark-colored urine

Myoglobinuria

transport from low concentration in the lumen to a high concentration in the cell is promoted by the cotransport of Na+ from a high concentration in the lumen to a low concentration in the cell

Sodium-dependent glucose transporters

Glycogenesis occurs in the ?

cytosol

Infectious agent composed of protein in a misfolded form (amyloid);

Prion disease

Synthesis of DNA, 5’ to 3’ direction, Semiconservative, discontinuous

Replication

Types of Eicosanoids

Prostanoids/Leukotrienes/Lipoxins

Location and Enzyme that cleaves Lysine and Arginine

Trypsin (Bovine Pancreas)

Deficiency: amylo-1,6-glucosidase (“debranching enzyme”) | Tissue Affected: liver, muscle

Cori’s

Group and Code:Methionine

Aliphatic;M

manifestations of Pellagra:

- Dementia (CNS disorder) - Diarrhea - Dermatitis

DNA physiologic conditions, right-handed

B-DNA

similar to agar , but some residues are methylated, sulfated, or in a cyclic ketal with pyruvic acid

Agaropectin

Group and Code:Threonine

Polar;T

the synthesis of α-globin chains is | decreased or absent (point mutations)

α-thalassemias

include NSAIDS (ASA, ibuprofen, mefenamic acid, naproxen, etc.)

nonselective COX inhibitors

Suicide inactivators: | azaserine

inhibits formylglycinamide | ribonucleotide aminotransferase

cleave within the chain to produce single-stranded nicks

Endonucleases

Group and Code: Arginine

Basic;R

Test for reducing sugar

Benedict's Reagent

the separation of DNA strands; high G-C content, high melting point (Tm)

DNA Denaturation

Serine is from _____________ intermediate in glycolysis

D-3-phosphoglycerate

one base (or base-pair) is replaced by another

Substitution

consist of repeating Gal-GlcNAc disaccharide units containing sulfate attached to the 6’ position of GlcNAc or occasionally of Gal

Keratan sulfate

used in the evaluation of enzyme inhibitors

Lineweaver-Burk Equation (Double-Reciprocal)

results in lower NADPH levels, and consequently, less glutathione (GSH) in reduced form; cells become more susceptible to oxidant attack, e.g., RBCs are especially susceptible to hemolysis

Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency

due to absence of galactose-1-P uridyl transferase activity or due to deficiency in galactokinase (less common form); unmetabolized galactose eventually causes liver damage, mental retardation, and cataracts

Galactosemia

Example of Simple proteins

ribonuclease (RNAse) A and chymotrypsinogen

makes PGs whose release leads to | inflammation, pain, and fever

COX-2

Nitrogenous bases pyrimidines?

C / U / T

a mixture of glycosaminoglycans (anionic mucopolysaccharides), which are polymers containing uronic acid residues, that alternate with glucosamine (GlcN) derivatives (most are sulfated, few are acetylated); anticoagulant

Heparin

MOA (DNA Replication): nalidixic acid, quinolones

Inhibition of DNA gyrase

impaired production of RBCs

folic acid or vitamin B12 deficiency

Steps in PCR

Denaturation -> Annealing->Extension/ Elongation

repair (“gap filling”)

Pol β

the folding pattern of the chain induced by the spatial arrangement of close-lying amino acid residues

Secondary Proteins