Biochemistry Flashcards
18:3 (6c,9c,12c)
γ-Linolenic acid
Example of Secondary DNA Structure
hairpin, cruciform
heterogeneous group of compounds related more by their physical rather than by their chemical properties
Lipids
Positive result : Keller-Killani Test
Reddish-Brown color
Positive Result: Hopkin’s Cole
Violet Junction
Deficiency : 1,4-D-glucosidase (lysosomal)
Tissue Affected: liver, heart muscle
Pompe’s
an enzyme that cuts the DNA at or near specific recognition nucleotide sequences
Restriction endonuclease (restriction enzyme)
essential in the formation of rhodopsin & the normal
functioning of the retina
was the first fat-soluble vitamin discovered
Vitamin A
Calciferol
Vitamin D
6 carbons; most import sugar in plants
Hexose
is a synthetic substance formed by the reduction of tachysterol
closely related to ergosterol
Dihydrotachysterol
the acceleration of the reaction rate
over that for the noncatalyzed reaction
Catalytic Power
Hydrates of carbon that are aldehyde or ketone derivatives of polyhydric alcohol
Carbohydrates
MOA (Reverse Transcription):
didanosine (ddI), zidovudine/ azidothymidine (AZT), lamivudine (3TC), abacavir (ABC), zalcitabine (ddC), emtricitabine (FTC)
Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI)
synthesis of RNA (rRNA, tRNA, or mRNA) using a DNA template
Transcription
decrease the risk of neutral tube deffects
Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid)
components of many enzymatic cofactors
FAD, NAD
found in large quantities in brain and nerve tissue; composed of a fatty acid, phosphoric acid, choline, and sphingosine; ceramide with phosphate and choline
Sphingomyelin
Nitrogenous bases purines?
A & G
Positive result : Bial’s
Green Color (sometime blue)
loss of one or more base pairs in a gene
Deletion
Biological Function of Protein: Protective
fibrin, Immunoglobulin, interferons
Deficiency:phosphorylase kinase
Tissue Affected:liver
Type VIII
Found in the cytoplasm, centrioles, cilia, and
flagella
Microtubule
thought to elongate Okazaki fragments of
the lagging strand; with 3’→5’ exonuclease
activity
Pol δ
Test for Pentoses
Bial’s Test
mainly responsible for the turnover of the cell’s own proteins, but also contributes to the breakdown of foreign proteins
Ubiquitin/Proteosome system
Condition where the heme iron is +3 rather than +2; MetHgb cannot bind O2
Methemoglobinemia
sequence of amino acids in polypeptide chain
Primary Proteins
20:5 (5c,8c,11c,14c,17c); an ω3 fatty
acid; in fish oils
Timnodonic acid (Eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA)
similar to phospholipid, but possesses an ether link on the sn-1 carbon instead of the normal ester linkage in acylglycerols; usually the ether linkage is with an unsaturated alcohol;
Plasmalogen
can treat Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
Group and Code:Tryptophan
Aromatic;W
Cofactor: Mg+2
hexokinase, glucose-6-phosphatase, pyruvate kinase
The stomach mechanically breaks up fat into smaller particles.
Fat Digestion
composed of glucose units linked α1→4;
produced by the hydrolysis of starch; a reducing sugar
Maltose
enzymes that cleave proteins at specific peptide bonds
Proteases
by oxidation of Fe+2 to Fe+3 by agents
such as nitrates, sulfonamides, or endogenous
products like ROS (reactive oxygen species)
Acquired Methemoglobinemia
Group and Code:Tyrosine
Aromatic;Y
alcohol is glycerol
Glycerophospholipids (phosphoglycerides) –
MOA (DNA Replication):
acyclovir (ACV, a
guanosine analogue) (herpes simplex virus)
Inhibition of DNA polymerase
“Branched Amino Audura”
Val, Leu, Ile
Maple Syrup urine Disease
Test for Proteins
Alkaloidal Reagent
Copper Deficiency
Depigmentation of Hair
– to break H-bonds and form ssDNA
– usu. 950 for 20 to 30 sec
Denaturation
Biological Function of Protein: Hormones
Insulin, HcG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)
Coenzyme : coenzyme A
acyl
the breakdown of glycogen (n) to glucose-1-phosphate and glycogen (n–1)
Glycogenolysis
anticancer agents of Type II topoisomerases
etoposide and teniposide
Use for cation or anion
exchange resins
Ion-exchange chromatography
alcohol is sphingosine
Sphingophospholipid (sphingolipid)
product of oxidation of the C6 hydroxy group of sugar
Uronic acid
Postive Result for Nitroprusside
Red
intramitochondrial NADH yields (?)
3 ATPs
combines IEF and SDS-PAGE
2D Electrophoresis
mutations in the α- or β-globin chain
promoting the formation of Hb M or MetHgb
Hereditary Methemoglobinemia
Diagnostic Enzymes:
Myocardial infarction
(1) Aspartate aminotransferase (AST or SGOT)
2) Lactate dehydrogenase (isoenzymes
Edman degradation reagents
phenylisothiocyanate (alkaline) and anhydrous
trifluoroacetic acid
Biological Function of Protein: Contractility
Actin, Myosin
Test for W,H
Pauly’s diazo (sulphanilic acid; HNO2)
DnaA protein, DNA
helicase, and ssDNA-binding (SSB) proteins
Pre-priming complex
Suicide inactivators:
5-fluorouracil
inhibits thymidylate synthase
Group and Code:Isoleucine
Aliphatic;I
relaxes the
DNA from supercoiling
Topoisomerase (e.g., DNA gyrase)
Positive Result: Millon’s
white ppt → red - nitrosation
Suicide inactivators:
disulfiram
aldehyde
dehydrogenase inhibitor
the accuracy of DNA the accuracy of DNA replication
fidelity
DNA that is dehydrated, shorter, right-handed
A-DNA
Test for Sulfur containing amino acid
Lead acetate
Examples of Mutagens
o Oxidants o Nitrosamines and nitrous acid o Alkylating agents o UV rays o Ionizing radiation
altered amino acid product; GAG to GTG (Glu→Val) in sickle-cell anemia
Missense Mutation
Vitamin B + C
serve as a precursor of coenzyme
Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)
Coenzyme : Thiamine pyrophosphate
aldehyde
facilitates breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids and monoglycerides.
Pancreatic lipase
the 3 contiguous bases in a molecule of mRNA that specify a particular amino acid in a polypeptide chain
Codon
Fumarate
F, Y
stimulation of glucose transport across the plasma membrane increases its availability for synthesis of fatty acids and glycerol from glycolytic pathway
Adipose Tissue
ATP-independent process that involves lysosomes (pH 3.8–5.0) and associated transport systems (endocytosis, autophagy, chaperon-mediated autophagy); for damaged organelles, cellular proteins, and “foreign materials” the cell contacts
Lysosomal system
relatively unreactive until they bind to the active site of a specific enzyme; also, mechanism-based inactivators
Suicide inactivators
subtle changes; requires DNA glycosylases
Base-excision repair (BER)
at physiological pH, usually exist as dipolar ions
Zwitterions; Amphoteric; Ampholytes
“wood sugar”
Xylose
widely distributed in fungi
Trehalose
Biological Function of Protein: Transport
Albumin, hemoglobin, lipoproteins
in which 2 or more polypeptide chains (subunits), each with its own tertiary structure, combine to form a larger assembly (protein complex)
Quaternary Protein
the basic hereditary unit that contains the information for making an RNA or a polypeptide
Gene
a complex organic/metalloorganic molecule
Coenzyme
Concept by which a tRNA can recognize more than one codon for a specific amino acid by allowing movement in the first base of the anticodon
Wobble Hypothesis
only 1 fatty acid attached to
glycerol
Lysophosphatidate
results from further folding, coiling, and aggregation of polypeptides that are induced by distant residues in the chain end; micellar effect
Tertiary Proteins
diphosphatidylglycerol; in mitochondria
Cardiolipin
lipid storage diseases
Lipidoses
the set of triplet codons specifying amino acids to be incorporated into polypeptide, plus three codons (UGA, UAG, UAA) specifying the terminus of such sequence of amino acids
Genetic code
Group and Code:Valine
Aliphatic;V
major natural form of Vitamin A
Retinol
Positive Result: Alkaloidal Reagent
Precipitate
the separation of DNA strands due to
(1) high temperature;
(2) very low salt concentration; (3) extreme pH
Suicide inactivators: neostigmine
acetylcholinesterase inhibitor
amine group bonded to the alpha carbon (carbon-2) of a carboxylic acid
α-amino acids
Hydrolysis of thioester to release succinate from succinyl-CoA; co- generation of GTP from GDP
Succinate thiokinase
larger than
amylose; as high as 106 glucose residues linked α1→4 along the linear chain and α1→6 at branches occurring every 20 units
Amylopectin (α-amylose)
Keratan sulfate Type I
Abundant in cornea
the average number of nucleotides added by DNA polymerase per association/dissociation with the template
processivity
found in cell walls of fruits; chains of galacturonic acid residues linked α1→4 (some as methyl esters)
Pectin
Test for Lysine , free -NH2
Nitrous Acid (HCl, NaNO2)
Uptake of a charged tRNA at the A site
Elongation
esters of fatty acids with glycerol
Fats/Oils
also known as phosphogluconate pathway, hexose
monophosphate shunt, pentose phosphate shunt
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Enzyme : formation of C–C, C–S, C–O, and C–N
bonds by condensation reactions coupled to ATP cleavage
Ligases
has 5’→3’ polymerase
activity, 3’→5’ exonuclease activity
(proofreading)
Seen in fatty acid catabolism; detoxification
Peroxisome
Known keto acids that can replace the amino acids in the diet.
Val,Leu,Ile
Carboxylation of pyruvate to give oxaloacetate, with consumption of ATP
Pyruvate decarboxylase
obtained by reduction of mannose;
diagnostic acid and osmotic diuretic
Mannitol
Oxidative decarboxylation of α- ketoglutarate to succinyl-CoA; co- generation of NADH from NAD+
α-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
phospholipid without the alcohol
Phosphatidate
22:1 (13c); in rapeseed oil
Erucic acid
Deficiency:phosphorylase
Tissue Affected:liver
Her’s
contains GlcNAc with fewer N- sulfates than heparin; predominantly glucuronic acid (GlcA)
Heparan sulfate
Succinyl-CoA precursors
I, M, T, V
used as special dietary supplements
Vitamin
Positive result for silver nitrate
Precipitate
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Deficiency
Pernicious Anemia
3’→5’ exonuclease activity; used in DNA repair
DNA polymerase II
Group and Code:Alanine
Aliphatic A
requires energy for phosphorylation of glucose (ATP)
and activation of glucosyl residues to UDP-glucose (UTP)
Glycogenesis
contains ceramide and one or more sugars;
Glycosphingolipid
a coenzyme or metal ion that is very tightly or even covalently bound to the enzyme protein
Prosthetic group
Positive result : Molisch
Violet Junction
the synthesis of β-globin chains is
decreased or absent (point mutations)
β-thalassemias
Enzyme catalyzes asparagine from aspartate
Asparagine Synthetase
Vitamin D Indication
Hypoparathyroidism
Nutritional Rickets
Renal Osteodystrophy Hypocalcemia
Cell with Nucleus with an envelope
Eukaryote
rapid interconversion of constitutional isomers by a chemical reaction that results in formal migration of a proton, accompanied by a switch of a single bond and adjacent
double bond
Tautomerization (tautomerism)
the endergonic processes required to maintain the living state
Anabolism
Binding of the mRNA to the smaller ribosomal
subunit
(16S rRNA)
contains primase; initiates DNA synthesis
Pol α
ound in association with several proteins as components of the ribosomes— the complex structures that serve as the sites for protein synthesis
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
most widely occurring sterol; a precursor to digestive and solubilizing agents, e.g., bile acids, and other biologically important molecules, such as adrenocortical hormones, sex hormones, D vitamins, cardiac glycosides, sitosterols (in plants), and some alkaloids membrane constituent
Cholesterol
Test for carboxylate
Silver nitrate
Test for Histidine
Knoop (aq. Br2, NH3)
Group and Code:Aspartate
Acidic;D
by Koshland; the functional groups may have to be moved into position for correct alignment after binding of the substrate; there is not necessarily a good steric fit initially
Induced Fit Model
Cephalin
(phosphatidylethanolamine) –
ethanolamine
not the reversal of glycogenesis (different set of enzymes)
Glycogenolysis
Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid) Deficiency?
-Paresthesia of the Extremities or “Burning Foot Syndrome”
three distinct components of Nucleotides
Nitrogenous base
Pentose
Phosphate
defines the periphery of the cell
Plasma membrane
present in high amounts in myelin; e.g., sulfogalactosylceramide
Sulfatide
based on the migration of charged proteins in an electric field
Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE)
biological cataysts that increase the rate of reactions without being changed in the overall process
Enzymes
the packing of helices, bulges, and single-stranded coils into a stable and more or less compact body
Tertiary Structure (DNA/RNA)
Group and Code:Serine
Polar;S
Sanger’s method reagents
1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (FDNB),
dansyl chloride and dabsyl chloride
Examples of Anomers
α-D-glucopyranose and β-D-glucopyranose
– second messengers and membrane component
– points for biological recognition (as glycoside)
Sphingolipids
1 sugar unit (simple sugar)
Monosaccharides
Example of tautomerism
Aldose-ketose interconversions
for formation of intercellular collagen
healing of bone fractures
metabolism of tyrosine
antiscorbutic vitamin
Vitamin C
Known as the “powerhouse”; oxidative metabolism
Mitchondrion
most abundant biological macromolecules that occur in
all cells and all parts of cells
Proteins
lipids
containing a fatty acid, sphingosine, and
carbohydrate
Glycolipids (glycosphingolipid)
Deficiency: “branching enzyme”
Tissue Affected: liver
Andersen’s
found in liver oil or other vegetable oil.
Oleovitamin A & D
composed of fructose units linked through β2→1 bonds
Inulin
18:3 (9c,12c,15c); one of
the EFA; an ω3 (omega-3) fatty acid
α-Linolenic acid
pyruvate
thereby produced is transported into the ?
mitochondria
Nucleotides of purines end in (1);
those of pyrimidines end in (2).
–idine
–idylate
Lecithin
(phosphatidylcholine) – choline
a set of experimental methods in molecular biology that are used to assemble recombinant DNA molecules and to direct their replication within host organisms
Molecular Cloning
where an inhibitor binds at a site distinct from the substrate active site, but binds to either E or the ES complex; lower Vmax, higher Km and slope
Mixed Inhibition
a short, RNA strand that binds to ssDNA to start replication; synthesized by primase
(DnaG)
RNA primer
an α1→6-linked polyglucan that is formed from sucrose by the action of a transglucosylase dextran sucrose) enzyme system of Leuconostoc mesenteroides; plasma expander (high m.w.); reduces blood viscosity (low m.w.)
Dextran
having stereocenters (chiral carbons)
Stereoisomerism
Test for F,Y,W
Xanthoproteic (conc. HNO3)
main food reserve in plants; composed of glucopyranose units; about 25% amylose and 75% amylopectin
Starch
Factors that Affect Enzyme Kinetics
substrate concentration
temperature
pH
a genetic disease in which an
individual has inherited the allele for sickle-cell Hgb (Hgb S) from both parents;
Sickle-cell anemia
prostaglandins (PGs),
prostacyclins (PGIs), and thromboxanes
(TXs)
Prostanoids
the α carbon is a ___________(except in glycine);
optically active
Chiral Center
Diagnostic Enzymes:
Acute pancreatitis
(1) Amylase
(2) Lipase
anticancer agents of Type I topoisomerases
camptothecin, topotecan, and irinotecan
Non-protein inorganic ions
Cofactor
proportionate to blood glucose;
about 5%; measurement of HbA1c provides useful information for the management of diabetes mellitus (DM); blood glucose concentration for 6–8 weeks
Glycosylated HbA1c
the combination of sphingosine plus fatty acid
Ceramide
specific for fructose
GLUT 5
Lactate produces pyruvate via
lactate dehydrogenase
FADH2 yields?
2 ATPs
MOA (Transcription):
rifampin
Inhibition of DNA-dependent RNA polymerase
altered codon encodes the same amino
acid; or in noncoding region
Silent Mutation
Group and Code:Asparagine
Polar;N
similar to structure of chondroitin sulfate, except that in place of a GlcA in β1→3 linkage to GalNAc, it contains an iduronic acid (IdA) in an α1→3 linkage to GalNAc; in cornea
Dermatan sulfate
“fruit sugar”; usually obtained by inversion of aqueous solutions of sucrose and subsequent separation from glucose; food for diabetic; sweetener (half as sweet as glucose)
Fructose
Alcohols in Phospholipids
o choline
o ethanolamine
o inositol
o serine
most rapidly reduced vitamin
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
Cofactor: K+
pyruvate kinse
Glycine is formed by?
Glyoxylate and Glutamate/Alanine Via glycine transaminases;
Choline and Serine via SHMT
Test for arginine
Sakaguchi (α-naphthol, NaOBr)
required in the transfer of aminogroups & decarboxylase of amino acid
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
Site lipid (and carbohydrate) synthesis
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Group and Code:Proline
Aliphatic;P
present in plants and fungi; important
precursor of vitamin D (provitamin D2)
Ergosterol
Group and Code:Cysteine
Polar;C
DNA high-salt conditions, longer, left-handed
Z-DNA
structurally related to Vitamin A
Retinoic Acid
MOA (Reverse Transcription):
efavirenz, nevirapine, delavirdine, etravirine, rilpivirine
Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors
yields 2 or 3 different fatty acids
Mixed Triglycerides
the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria
Lipopolysaccharides (LPS)
component of bacterial cell walls;
alternating β1→4 linked GlcNAc and N- acetylmuramic acid (O-lactyl-N-acetylglucosamine) residues cross-linked via peptide structures
Peptidoglycan
stimulation of glucose transport by insulin increases its availability for glycolysis and glycogen synthesis
Muscle
releases
TGs in fat and muscle cells
Very Low–Density Lipoprotein (VLDL)
Glucose Transporter : liver and pancreatic cells; high Km
high glucose levels for absorption
GLUT 2
Eukaryotic Ribosomes
40S / 60S
action of enzyme on a limited
set of substrates
Substrate Specificity
Amino acid formed from Methionine and Serine?
Cysteine
– similar to replication
– uses dNTPs (with equal amount of dA, dT, dG,
and dC) and thermostable polymerases such as
Taq and Pfu polymerase
– usu. 75–800C; depends on the optimal
temperature of the polymerase
Extension/Elongation
Diagnostic Enzymes:
Liver diseases
γ-Glutamyl transpeptidase
Types of Supercoiling
positively supercoiled
negatively supercoiled
relaxed
Example of α-helix
α-keratin, hemoglobin, myoglobin
laxative; composed of galactose linked
β1→4 to fructose
Lactulose
have a central moiety, _____, which is the primary
immunostimulatory fragment of LPS
Lipid A
the degree of DNA strand winding (supercoiling)
DNA topology
cut from the end of the chain, releasing single nucleotides
Exonucleases
Packaging and processing of marcromolules takes place
Golgi apparatus
a DNA molecule used as a vehicle to artificially carry foreign genetic material into another cell, where it can be replicated (cloning vector) and/or expressed (expression vector); most common, plasmids
Vector
Prokaryotic Ribosomes
30S / 50S
Found lipid bilayer;
integral/transmembrane proteins; Na+/K+ ATPase
Plasma Membrane
an inheritable change or variation in a gene
Mutation
Formation of peptide bond between the amino acid at the A site and the acylated tRNA in the P
site
Elongation
Glycosphingolipid in the (brain and other nervous tissue)
galactosylceramide
composed of 5S RNA, 28S RNA,
5.8S RNA, and 46 proteins
60S subunit
derived from eicosa- (C20) polyenoic fatty acids
Eicosanoids
the coupling of electron transfer reactions through respiratory complexes, with phosphorylation of ADP to ATP
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Cofactor : Zn+2
carbonic anhydrase, alcohol dehydrogenase, carboxypeptidases A and B
used for for identifying the N-terminal residue
Sanger’s method
utilizes a set of restriction endonucleases, DNA ligases, appropriate vectors, and suitable cloning systems (often, E. coli)
Molecular Cloning
used to amplify a single copy or a few copies of a piece of DNA generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence
Polymerase Chain Reaction
Test for monosaccharides
Barfoed’s Test
agents that cause mutations
Mutagens
framsehift mutations, e.g., in Huntington’s disease (CAG), and fragile X syndrome (CGG)
“Indels”
Deficiency:phosphorylase
Tissue Affected:muscle
McArdle’s
bile salts is know as?
lecithin-cholesterol acyl transferase,
LCAT)
has 5’→3’ polymerase
activity, 3’→5’ exonuclease activity (proofreading), and 5’→3’ exonuclease activity (nick translation during DNA repair); removes RNA primer and fills gaps on lagging strand; low processivity
DNA polymerase I
the complete set of genes, control sequences, and other genetic information for a cell
Genome
replaces the mismatch base on the unmethylated daughter strand; Mut proteins on GATC sequences (E. coli) or CpG islands (mammals)
Methyl-mediated mismatch repair
insulin-dependent (Tissue)
Muscle and adipose tissue
Test for Ketones
Seliwanoff’s test /Tauber’s Test
Diagnostic Enzymes:
Viral hepatitis
Alanine aminotransferase (ALT or SGPT)
20:4 (5c,8c,11c,14c)
Arachidonic acid
Group and Code:Phenylalanine
Aromatic;F
muscle and adipose tissue (located
in the interior of fat cells)
GLUT 4
Suicide inactivators:
D-cycloserine
inhibits alanine racemase
the characteristic pH at which the net electric charge is zero
isoelectric point (isoelectric pH, pI)
without O2 pyruvate instead changes to lactate, a step in which NAD+ can be replenished
homolactate fermentation
the process of glycogen synthesis, in which glucose molecules are added to chains of glycogen for storage
Glycogenesis
contains same sugar
units
Homopolysaccharide
unwinds DNA at the replication fork
Helicase
Translation (Process)
Activation of Amino Acid > Initiation > Elongation > Termination
has 16S RNA subunit and 21
proteins
30S subunit
can be used in the management of hyperlipidemia
Vitamin B3(Niacin)
activating intermediates in metabolic reactions
UDP
MOA (DNA Replication):
metronidazole (Clostridium difficile)
Free-radical mediated inhibition of DNA synthesis
isomers that differ in their topology (amount and type of supercoiling)
Topoisomers
stop codons (UGA, UAG, UAA)
Nonsense Mutation
Cofactor: Fe+2/Fe+3
cytochrome oxidase, catalase, peroxidase
maintains the integrity of epithelial membranes
Vitamin A
releases TGs in fat cells, skeletal
and heart muscle cells (lipoprotein lipase)
Chylomicrons
Avoid taking Wheat Bread while taking _______-,
-fiber rich food can decrease absorption of __________
Calcium
Type of enzyme that catalyzes phenylalanine to tyrosine
Phenylalanine hydroxylase
distributes
cholesterol widely to hepatic and non-hepatic cells
Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL)
free FAs, monoglycerides, and free cholesterol in the?
Small Intestine
Information flows from DNA to mRNA to proteins (FLOW)
DNA Replication → Transcription → Translation
Test for Tyrosine
Millon’ s(Hg+2 in HNO3)
Enzyme : transfer of electrons (hydride or
H atoms)
Oxidoreductases
animal species
may be formed by irradiation of 7- dehydrocholesterol & resembles ergocalciferol in appearance & physical properties.
Cholecalciferol (Vit D3)
a complete, catalytically active enzyme together with its bound coenzyme and/or metal ions
Holoenzyme
Keratan sulfate Type II
found along with chondroitin sulfate attached to hyaluronic acid in loose connective tissue
Group and Code:Leucine
Aliphatic;L
for transport of triglycerides and cholesterol throughout the bloodstream
amphipathic
Lipoproteins
both caloric intake and specific amino acids are deficient
Marasmus
Suicide inactivators:
chloramphenicol
Inhibits peptidyl transferase
derivatives of a complex amino alcohol,
sphingosine
Proline is from ______(reverse of proline catabolism)
Glutamine
Biological Function of Protein: Receptor
Nicotinic/adrenergic receptor
occur in greatest proportion in dried yeast
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
Fatty acids that contains two or more double bonds
Polyunsaturated (polyethenoid, polyenoic) acids
Positive result for Xanthproteic
Yellow
(TCA) 4 of the 8 steps are oxidation, producing NADH (_ATP) and FADH2 (_ATP)
NADH - 3 ATP
FADH2 - 2 ATP
α-Ketoglutarate precursors
R, E, Q, H, P
24:1 (15c); in cerebrosides
Nervonic acid
nonfermentable sugar alcohol; prevents dental
caries; diabetic sweetener
Xylitol
Diagnostic Enzymes:
Metastatic carcinoma of the prostate
Phosphatase , acid
transports both glucose and fructose;
small intestine and colon; absorption of sugar from the gut
GLUT 7
product of oxidation of the carbonyl group of sugar
Aldonic acid
contains different
sugar units
Heteropolysaccharide
DNA sequences and structures
located at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes; have tandem repeats of TTAGGG; made resistant to cellular nucleases by stacked G-quadruplexes
Telomeres
Favored point of hydrolysis of sugar to monosaccharides
1,4 glycosidic bond
which the genome is stored and replicated; with envelope (eukaryote) or without envelope (prokaryote)
Nucleus
Nucleoid (Bacteria)
takes place in the mitochondria, inside the inner
mitochondrial membrane
Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (TCA Cycle)
esters of fatty acids containing
groups in addition to an alcohol and a fatty acid
Complex Lipids
Group and Code:Histidine
Basic;H
include fatty acids,
glycerol, steroids (cholesterol, bile acids), alcohols (aside from glycerol and sterols), fatty aldehydes and ketone bodies, hydrocarbons (terpenes), lipid-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, K), and hormones
Precursor and derived lipids
Zinc Deficiency
Alopecia Infertility
Poor wound healing
Poor growth
Poor resistant to infection
enzymes that can interconvert topoisomers
Topoisomerases
couples exergonic reactions of nutrient breakdown
Catabolism
Positive test for Benedicts (Moderate Amount)
Yellow/ Yellow Orange
Pyruvate precursors
A, C, G, S, W
to determine the
isoelectric point (pI) of a protein; uses ampholytes in
gels
Isoelectric Focusing (IEF)
Types of pentose (nucleotides)
Ribose / deoxyribose
D-glucitol; humectant and sweetener (with
laxative properties)
Sorbitol
Inhibition that is affected by the concentration
of the substrate
Reversible Inhibition
degrade peptides to free amino acids
Peptidases
the basic structural and functional unit of all living
organisms
Cell
Group and Code: Glutamate
Acidic;E
lactate is produced in the ?
muscle or RBC
(Glycolysis) glucose is converted to_______, which is ready for oxidation
fructose-1,6- biphosphate
inhibitor binds covalently with or destroy a functional group on an enzyme that is essential for the enzyme activity, or those that form a particularly stable noncovalent association
Irreversible inhibition
replicates mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA);
with 3’→5’ exonuclease activity
Pol γ
the region that binds the substrates
(cofactors, prosthetic groups, etc.) and contains the residues necessary to bind the substrate or directly participate in the reaction
Active site
metabolic regulators or signaling agents
cAMP
Enzyme responsible for the conversion of Fe+3 to Fe+2 in Hgb
Deficiency of NADH-methemoglobin reductase
Test for Cysteine
Nitroprusside
conversion of dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)
to glycerol-3-phosphate (via glycerol phosphate pathway) to pass through the mitochondrial membrane – costs?
1 ATP
contain only amino acid residues and no other chemical constituents
Simple Proteins
18:1 (9c); most common
Oleic acid
cuts one strand, rotate, and reclose; inhibited by anticancer agents camptothecin, topotecan, and irinotecan
Type I Topoisomerases
Formation of aminoacyl adenylate by ?
aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases
Components of Molisch Reagent
α-naphthol and conc. H2SO4
Test for deoxysugars
Keller-Killani Test
Diagnostic Enzymes:
Bone disorders, obstructive liver diseases
Phosphatase, alkaline (isoenzymes)
Nucleic Acid is linked via ?
phosphodiester bonds (5’ , 3’)
the internal volume bounded by the plasma membrane; composed of an aqueous cytosol and a variety of suspended particles (called organelles) with specific functions
Cytoplasm
synthesis of a polypeptide chain in a sequence specified by mRNA; carried out by the ribosome
Translation
(Glycolysis)fructose-1,6-biphosphate is split into two 3- carbon fragments
DHAP and glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate;
the native structure is determined only by the protein’s amino acid sequence
Anfinsen’s dogma (thermodynamic hypothesis)
hereditary hemolytic diseases in which an imbalance occurs in the synthesis of globin chains; single-gene disorder
Thalassemias
single-stranded oligonucleotides (15 to 30 bases) complementary to the template strand of the gene that is to be replicated; 5’ primer (forward) and 3’ primer (reverse)
Primer
Enzyme that cleaves F, Y ,W from the porcine stomach
Pepsin (Amino)
refers to the mixture of RUTIN and HESPERIDIN
Vitamin P (PERMEABLITY FACTOR)
cuts both strands; inhibited by anticancer agents etoposide and teniposide; also, by antibacterial agents, e.g., nalidixic acid (quinolones)
Type II Topoisomerases
include rofecoxib and celecoxib
selective COX-2 inhibitors
Selenium Deficiency
RBC Fragility
Example of Fibrous proteins
keratin, collagen, elastin, and fibroin
the smallest (4S) of the 3 major types of RNA molecules; an “adaptor” molecule
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
prosthetic group
in pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), α-ketoglutarate
dehydrogenase, and transketolase
thiamine pyrophosphate
Positive result : Osazone
Yellow crystal w/ phenylhydrazine HCl
Types of Nitrogenous Base:
Purine and pyrimidine
Pur→Pur (or Pyr→Pyr); e.g., deamination of C (U “read” as T):A
Transition
– binding of the primer to the complementary sequence on the ssDNA template
– usu. 50–600C; depends on the Tm of the primers
Annealing
main constituent in plant cell walls; composed of glucose units linked β1→4 in a linear chain
Cellulose
Glutamate is from the reductive amination of ___________ by glutamate dehydrogenase
α-ketoglutarate
Prion disease is responsible for what type of implication?
transmissible spongiform encephalopathies
extramitochondrial NADH (generated in the cytosol) yields only?
2 ATPs
Test for the presence of galactose
Mucic
“milk sugar”; composed of galactose linked
β1→4 to glucose
Lactose
the overall process through which living systems
acquire and utilize free energy to carry out their
functions
Metabolism
separation of proteins from solvents because of the larger size of proteins
Dialysis
Positive result : Seliwanoff/Taubers
red color with resorcinol and conc. HCl
Enzyme : hydrolysis reactions
Hydrolases
Cell without Nucleus with an envelope
Prokaryote
Group and Code:Glutamine
Polar;Q
MOA (Translation):
tetracyclines, aminoglycosides
Inhibition of the 30S ribosomal subunit
Coenzyme : NAD
H-
Brain, liver, RBCs is affected by insulin? True or False
False
most common sterol in plants
β-Sitosterol
Test for glycoproteins
Molisch (conc. H2SO4, α- naphthol)
removes the RNA primer fragments
RNAse H
results when the individual is weaned onto a starchy diet poor in protein. (Grains are poor sources of essential amino acids Trp and Lys.)
Kwashiorkor
Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid) Deficiency
Glossitis
Megaloblastic Anemia
Positive test for Benedicts (Traces of Sugar)
Green
Deficiency : glucose 6-phosphatase (or in transport system in endoplasmic reticulum)
Tissue Affected: liver, kidney
Von Gierke’s
Positive result for Ninhydrine?
Blue
all enzymes are proteins except?
Ribosomes
interact with biological membranes; helix bundle or beta barrel; integral or amphitropic
Membrane proteins
saccharum or “table sugar”; composed of
glucose linked α1→β2 to fructose; occurs abundantly in
the free state in plants; a non-reducing sugar
Sucrose
conditions that result from mutations in Hgb
Hemoglobinopathies
Group and Code: Lysine
Basic;K
synthetic form of Vitamin K1
Phytomenadione
18:2 (9c,12c); one of the
“essential fatty acids” (EFA)
Linoleic acid
o capping of 7-methylguanine at the 5’ end o poly(A) tail at the 3’ end
Transcript Processing
differ in configuration at only one stereogenic center;
Epimers
the stable, repeating
conformational pattern in a polymer
Secondary Structure (DNA/RNA)
Example of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies
- bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or “mad- cow disease)
- Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) and Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD)
- Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome
- kuru
complex, high-molecular-weight; hydrolyzed into many sugar units
Polysaccharide
esters of fatty acids and glycerol 3-phosphate or a derivative thereof, such as a phosphate diester bridged to another alcoholic group
– main lipid constituents of membranes
Phospholipids
where an inhibitor binds at a site distinct from the substrate active site and binds only to the ES complex; lower Vmax and Km, but same double-reciprocal slope
Uncompetitive Inhibition
linear; 1000–2000
glucopyranose units linked α1→4; more soluble
in water than amylopectin
Amylose (β-amylose)
results upon hydrolysis of sucrose (by acid or invertase) and consists of equimolar quantities of glucose and fructose
Invert sugar
complex glycosphingolipid derived from glucosylceramide that contain one or more molecules of sialic acid (neuraminic acid is the principal sialic acid found in human tissues)
Ganglioside
Pentose Phosphate Pathway, produces __________required for the
biosynthesis of nucleotides
ribose 5-phophate
Used for gel filtration; size
Size-exclusion chromatography
Oxidation of malate to oxaloacetate; co- generation of NADH from NAD+
Malate dehydrogenase
spherical (“globe-like”) proteins; water-soluble/colloidal;
Globular proteins (spheroproteins)
used in the prevention of degenerative changes in the central nervous system.
Vitamin B Complex
synthesized in the liver from cholesterol;
cholic acid, chenodesoxycholic acid; desoxycholic acid, lithocholic acid
Bile Acids
enantiomers (non-super-
imposable mirror-images); the D/L-system is often
used
Optical isomers
22:6 (4c, 7c,10c,13c,16c,19c); an ω3 fatty acid; in fish oils; found in phospholipids in brain
Cervonic acid (Docosahexaenoic acid, DHA)
contain the cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene (CPPP) nucleus
Steroids
Oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate; co-generation of NADH from NAD+
Isocitrate dehydrogenase
where an inhibitor binds at a site distinct from the substrate active site, but binds to either E or the ES complex with the same affinity; lower Vmax, but usually same Km
Noncompetititve Inhibition
the ratio of kcat and Km when [S] «_space;Km
Specificity constant
Coenzyme : CO2
biocytin
catalytic RNA molecules
Ribozymes
Test for Tryptophan
Hopkin’s Cole(glyoxylic acid)
indicates the
position of the initiation codon on the mRNA
Shine-Dalgarno sequence
glycogen branches are catabolized by the sequential removal of glucose monomers via ?
phosphorolysis (glycogen phosphorylase)
Test for amino acid?
Ninhydrin
Coenzyme : pyridoxal phosphate
Amino group
composed of 5S and 23S RNA subunits and 31 proteins
50S subunit
the protein part of the enzyme
Apoenzyme (apoprotein)
Positive result for Nitrous Acid
Gas (N2) - Diazotization
the sequence of nucleotide
residues, when covalently linked in a linear chain in a
polynucleotide
Primary Structure (DNA/RNA)
esters of fatty acids and glycerols
Triglycerides
Glutamine turns to _____(Hydrophobic); the blood contains man long, thin, crescent-shaped RBCs; deoxygenated Hgb S becomes insoluble
Valine
consists of unbranched chain of repeating disaccharide units containing GlcA and GlcNAc; in synovial fluid, vitreous body of the eye, cartilage and loose connective tissues
Hyaluronic acid
Deficiency:glycogen synthase
Tissue Affected:liver
Type IX
nutrient; obtained by controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of starch
Dextrose (D-glucose)
restores modified bases while they
are still attached to the DNA strand; DNA photolyase
(bacteria)
Direct repair
induces the synthesis of gluconeogenic enzymes; represses the synthesis of glycolytic enzymes
glucagon
Biological Function of Protein: Structural
Elastin, Keratin, Collagen
has 5’→3’ polymerase activity and 3’→5’ exonuclease activity; synthesizes DNA in the leading strand continuously; elongates from the RNA primer to another RNA of an Okazaki fragment in the lagging strand; high processivity
DNA polymerase III
Where is glycine synthesise?
Liver cytosol
obtained by incomplete hydrolysis of starch or by controlled acid hydrolysis of corn starch; contains dextrose with dextrins, maltose and water
Liquid glucose
the tendency of the substrate and the enzyme to dissociate; may be approximated by Km when k-1»_space; k2
Dissociation constant (Kd)
water-dwelling organisms convert nitrogen is to ammonia
ammonotelic
Suicide inactivators:
organoarsenicals
inhibitor of pyruvate
dehydrogenase
aturally occurring pyridine derivative that prevents Pellagra
Vitamin B3(Niacin)
yields 3 molecules of one fatty acid
Simple Triglycerides
Oxaloacetate
N, D
has an 18S RNA and 33 proteins
40S subunit
usually straight-chain carboxylic acids that contain an even number of carbon atoms
Fatty Acids
D-ribulose and D-xylulose; β-
D-glucopyranose and β-D-mannopyranose are examples of?
Epimers
due to excessive immune response
“toxic shock”
(Glycolysis)glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is oxidized to ?
pyruvate
Group and Code: Glycine
Aliphatic;G
22:5 (7c,10c,13c,16c,19c); an ω3 fatty acid; in fish oils; found in phospholipids in brain
Clupanodonic acid (Docosapentaenoic acid, DPA)
in the cells of the Liver tissues (G6P→glucose→?)
bloodstream via GLUT2
Termination Codons
UAG, UGA, UAA
fills the nicks
DNA ligase
due to deficiency in G6PD or any other disruption in the pentose phosphate pathway; sulfhydryl groups on the Hgb may be oxidized, destabilizing it, and causing it to denature and aggregate (this can lead to rupture of cell membrane)
Hemolytic anemia
Enzyme that cleave internal bonds
Endopeptidases
Chromium Deficiency
Glucose Intolerance Peripheral Neuropathy
Metabolic Encephalopathy
Information flows from DNA to mRNA to proteins
Central Dogma
Oxidation of succinate to fumarate; flavoprotein is subsequently regenerated by reduction of CoQ
Succinate dehydrogenase
Aspartate is formed via transamination of
oxaloacetate
result from impaired synthesis of Hgb
Iron-deficiency
– also known as phosphogluconate pathway, hexose
monophosphate shunt, pentose phosphate shunt – alternative to glycolysis for glucose metabolism (about
10% in adipocytes, near 0% in muscle)
– no ATP is directly consumed or produced
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
accumulation of neurotoxic peptide amyloid β (Aβ) and neurofibrillary tangles inside neurons (tau, τ protein)
Alzheimer’s disease
introduction of one or more base pairs into a sequence
Insertion
esters of fatty acids with higher
molecular weight monohydric alcohol
Waxes
glucose moves via facilitative transporters from
high concentration to lower concentration in the
blood; do not bind Na+
Facilitative glucose transporters
trans-4-Hydroxyproline is formed via hydroxylation of _____________ by ____________ (peptidyl hydroxylase); α-KG, then, is decarboxylated to succinate
peptide- bound proline
prolyl hydroxylase
Enzyme : addition of groups to double bonds, or
formation of double bonds by removal of groups
Lyases
best supplement recommended for strict vegetarian
Vitamin B12
Non-essential amino acid formed via hydroxylation of peptide-bound lysine by lysyl hydroxylase
5-Hydroxylysine
Found in Organelle support, cell shape, locomotion
Cytoskeleton
proteins that assist the
noncovalent folding and unfolding and the assembly or disassembly of macromolecular structures; heat- shock proteins (HSPs)
Molecular chaperones
Positive Result : Sakaguchi
Red
DnaG + pre-priming complex
Primosome
Binding of the charged tRNA at the AUG codon of the mRNA template
(anticodon loop)
MOA (Reverse Transcription):
adenylate analogues: tenofovir, adefovir
Nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (ntRTI)
Cofactor : Mn+2
arginase, ribonucleotide reductase
contain permanently associated non-amino acid chemical components
(prosthetic group)
Conjugated Proteins
Type of Amino acid that must be obtained from the diet
Essential Amino Acid
H. MATTILL V.P
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Deficiency
- Hypochromic microcystis anemia
- Resemble Niacin & Riboflavin abnormalities - Neurologic Abnormalities
- Tryptophan loading dose maybe used for its
diagnosis
Oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA; co- generation of NADH from NAD+
Pyruvate dehydrogenase
Enzyme that cleaves F, Y, W from the bovine pancreas
Chymotrypsin (Carboxy)
the principal sterol in feces
Coprostanol
equivalent to the number of substrate molecules converted to product in a given unit of time on a single enzyme molecule when the enzyme is saturated with substrate
Turnover number (kcat)
agar that yields d- and l-galactose on hydrolysis
Agarose
Hydration of fumarate to give malate
Fumarase
Deficiency: phosphofructokinase
Tissue Affected:muscle
Tarui’s
Isomerization of citrate to isocitrate
Aconitase
where an inhibitor
competes for the active site of an enzyme; same Vmax, but higher Km and double-reciprocal slope; e.g., methanol poisoning and treatment with ethanol
Competitive Inhibition
MOA (Translation):
macrolides, clindamycin, linezolid,
chloramphenicol, streptogramins
Inhibition of the 50S ribosomal subunit
nutritionally semiessential
Histidine and Arginine
Place where ribosomes are produced
Nucleolus
Positive result : Fehling’s
Brick red precipitate
Positive Result: Molish
Purple ring at junction
5 carbons; common in nature
Pentose
consists of repeating disaccharide units containing GcA and GalNAc, which is substituted with sulfate at either its 4’ or its 6’ position; in cartilage, tendons, ligaments and walls of aorta
Chondroitin sulfate
esters of fatty acids with various
alcohols
Simple Lipids
is converted to calciferol upon exposure to
ultraviolet light
7-Dehydrocholesterol
16:1 (9c)
Palmitoleic acid
must be supplemented in poisonings caused by Cycloserin & Isoniazid
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
Implication due to accumulation of these insoluble, spontaneously aggregating proteins (amyloids)
Amyloid diseases
a precursor of vitamin A which does not occur In plants,
but in its place are compound that are converted into Vitamin A in the small animal body
Beta-carotene
carries genetic information from the nuclear DNA to the cytosol;
template for protein synthesis
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Known is Japanese isinglass
Agar
20–25% excreted as urea, Release nitrogen as uric acid in the form of semisolid guano
ureotelic
Test for reducing sugar but not ketone
Fehling’s test
5’→3’ exonuclease activity
(nick translation during DNA repair);
Coenzyme : FAD/FMN
electron
contiguous non-overlapping groups of three nucleotides or codons in a polynucleotide, used to specify a polypeptide sequence; specified by an initiation (start) codon AUG
Reading frame
Enzyme : group transfer reactions
Transferases
natural form of Vitamin K1
Phylloquinone
defect in the activity of one or more catabolic
enzymes, particularly in sphingolipid and sterol metabolism
Lipidoses
due to a deficiency
in aldolase B; results in the buildup of fructose-1- phosphate will deplete the local pool of ATP and inorganic phosphate; symptoms include bloating, nausea, and vomiting; eventually, severe damage to the liver and kidney can occur
Hereditary fructose intolerance
Process of transferring information to DNA for conservation of
inherited traits.
Replication
the process of recycling proteins into their constituent amino acids, for reuse by the cell
Protein Turnover
Formed via transamination of pyruvate; transfer of α- amino group from glutamate by transaminase
Alanine
COX inhibits the formation of a peroxide and a cyclopentane ring on arachidonic acid
Cyclo-oxygenase (COX) Inhibition
Pur→Pyr (or Pyr→Pur); e.g., deamination of A (hypoxanthine “read” as C):G
Transversion
lack of Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), which is required for the hydroxylation of Pro and Lys in collagen by prolyl and lysyl hydroxylases;
Scurvy
Pancreatic and intestinal wall _______break down cholesterol esters to free cholesterol and fatty acids.
esterases
based on solubility (“salting out” using
ammonium sulfate) and size/charge (column chromatography)
Fractionation
Positive Result : Knoop
blue or violet
Fatty acids that contain one double bond
Monounsaturated (monoethenoid, mono- enoic) acids
Ubiquitous; constitutive in all tissues makes hormones, i.e., PGs to keep the stomach
lining intact and the kidneys functioning properly
COX-1
Known as the control center
Nucleus
Site of protein synthesis (ribosomes)
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
thought to elongate the leading strand;
with 3’→5’ exonuclease activity
Pol ε
Biological Function of Protein: Regulatory
Calmodulin, transcription factors
Glycosphingolipid in the (extraneural tissues)
glucosylceramide
Positive result for Lead Acetate
Black (PbS)
Mutation (Process)
Substitution > Deletion > Insertion
DHAP is converted to (Glycolysis)gyceraldehyde-3- phosphate by
triose phosphate isomerase
Known as “splitting sugar” main catabolic pathway for glucose (and other sugars), which yields pyruvate and ATP
Glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhof Pathway)
Positive Result : Pauly’s diazo
red
- diazotization and coupling (azo dye)
the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate
precursors: pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, glucogenic
amino acids, and fatty acids
Gluconeogenesis
Nucleosides of purines end in (1);
those of pyrimidines end in (2).
–osine
–idine
Enzyme : transfer of groups within molecules to
yield isomeric forms
Isomerases
a purified mixture of dextrose (≥93% dextrose)
Dextrates
mammalian carbohydrate storage molecule; analogous to amylopectin in structure; larger and with more frequent branching (about every 10 residues)
Glycogen
18:1 (9t); in hydrogenated fat
Elaidic acid
plant steroid derived from Ergosterol
Ergocalciferol (Vit D2)
Charging of tRNA at the CCA end (3’ end) with aminoacyl-tRNA to form
aminoacyl-tRNA
long
protein filaments shaped like rods or wires; structural or storage; inert and water-insoluble; not easily denatured
Fibrous proteins (scleroproteins)
in the cells of the muscle (G6P for glycolysis→ ?)
Contraction
Diagnostic Enzymes:
Hepatolenticular
degeneration disease)
Ceruloplasmin
removes entire oligonucleotide; uses UV-specific endonuclease (uvrABC excinuclease in E. coli)
Nucleotide-excision repair (NER)
in nucleotides, the nucleoside is _______ on the _______ of sugar
(1) Phosphorylated
(2) Hydroxyl groups
the breakdown of the tertiary structure of a protein; precipitation or loss of catalytic activity; excessive heat or extreme pH values
Denaturation
free energy carrier for reactions , transport, work and other activities
ATP, GTP
General test for Carbohydrates
Molisch Test/Osazone formation
emulsify fats in the small intestine → micelles.
Bile salts
Used to know the sequence short peptides;
Edman degradation
Example of β-pleated sheet
silk fibroin, amyloid β or
amyloid plaque
Glucose Transporter : Brain
GLUT 1
The substrate concentration that produces half- maximal velocity
Km value or Michaelis constant
carries out telomere synthesis in eukaryotes
Telomerase
the nucleosome which consists of 8 histone molecules and 146 nucleotide pairs of DNA
Quaternary Structure
Condensation of oxaloacetate with acetyl-CoA
Citrate synthase
Positive test for Benedicts
Big amount of sugar
Red orange or red
Inositide
(phosphatidylinositol) – inositol
Cofactor: Cu+2
cytochrome oxidase
the ability of certain anticocon to pair w/ codons that differ at the third base.
Wobble
lipids containing, in addition to fatty acids and an alcohol, a phosphate residue; frequently have nitrogen bases and other
substituents
Phospholipids
Coenzyme : tetrahydrofolate
one-carbon groups
Biological Function of Protein: Catalyst
Enzymes
reductions in the amount of RBCs or hemoglobin (Hgb) in the blood;
Anemia
Enzyme that turns glutamate to Glutamine
Glutamine synthetase
differ only in configuration at the hemiacetal or hemiketal carbon (anomeric carbon);
Anomers
Example of Globular proteins
hemoglobin, immunoglobulin, α-, β-, and γ- globulins, albumin, actin and tubulin, and many enzymes
Glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhof Pathway) takes place in?
Cytosol
in ribonucleosides and 2’-deoxyribonucleosides, D-
ribose or 2-deoxy- D-ribose, respectively, is linked via a β-N-glycosidic bond to ______?
N-9 of purine
N-1 of a pyrimidine
“scavenges” unwanted, excess cholesterol, partly from cell breakdown, back to liver for excretion
High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL)
major constituent in shells of crustaceans; similar in structure to cellulose; composed of β1→4 linked N-acetylglucosamine residues (GlcNAc)
Chitin
Used in the ligand cross-linked to beads
Affinity chromatography
known as “waste basket”; breaks down macromolecules and digests worn out cell components
Lysosome
Coenzyme : coenzyme B12
H and alkyl
due to deficiency in thiamine (vitamin B1) in the diet; causes both neurologic and cardiovascular symptoms, including edema and heart enlargement
Beri-beri
by Emil Fischer; the substrate must fit into the active site of the enzyme precisely so that functional groups align properly and there is a good steric fit
Lock-and-Key Model (Rigid Template Model)
discontinous stretches in which the lagging
strand is initially synthesized during DNA replication
Okazaki Fragments
Phosphatidylserine
serine
following massive crush injury,
myoglobin is released from ruptured muscle fibers and
appears in the urine; dark-colored urine
Myoglobinuria
transport from low concentration in the lumen to
a high concentration in the cell is promoted by the cotransport of Na+ from a high concentration in the lumen to a low concentration in the cell
Sodium-dependent glucose transporters
Glycogenesis occurs in the ?
cytosol
Infectious agent composed of protein in a misfolded form (amyloid);
Prion disease
Synthesis of DNA, 5’ to 3’ direction, Semiconservative, discontinuous
Replication
Types of Eicosanoids
Prostanoids/Leukotrienes/Lipoxins
Location and Enzyme that cleaves Lysine and Arginine
Trypsin (Bovine Pancreas)
Deficiency: amylo-1,6-glucosidase (“debranching enzyme”)
Tissue Affected: liver, muscle
Cori’s
Group and Code:Methionine
Aliphatic;M
manifestations of Pellagra:
- Dementia (CNS disorder)
- Diarrhea
- Dermatitis
DNA physiologic conditions, right-handed
B-DNA
similar to agar , but some residues are methylated, sulfated, or in a cyclic ketal with
pyruvic acid
Agaropectin
Group and Code:Threonine
Polar;T
the synthesis of α-globin chains is
decreased or absent (point mutations)
α-thalassemias
include NSAIDS (ASA, ibuprofen, mefenamic acid, naproxen, etc.)
nonselective COX inhibitors
Suicide inactivators:
azaserine
inhibits formylglycinamide
ribonucleotide aminotransferase
cleave within the chain to produce single-stranded nicks
Endonucleases
Group and Code: Arginine
Basic;R
Test for reducing sugar
Benedict’s Reagent
the separation of DNA strands; high G-C content, high melting point (Tm)
DNA Denaturation
Serine is from _____________ intermediate in glycolysis
D-3-phosphoglycerate
one base (or base-pair) is replaced by another
Substitution
consist of repeating Gal-GlcNAc disaccharide units containing sulfate attached to the 6’ position of GlcNAc or occasionally of Gal
Keratan sulfate
used in the evaluation of enzyme inhibitors
Lineweaver-Burk Equation (Double-Reciprocal)
results in lower NADPH levels, and consequently, less glutathione (GSH) in reduced form; cells become more susceptible to oxidant attack, e.g., RBCs are especially susceptible to hemolysis
Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency
due to absence of galactose-1-P uridyl transferase activity or due to deficiency in galactokinase (less common form); unmetabolized galactose eventually causes liver damage, mental retardation,
and cataracts
Galactosemia
Example of Simple proteins
ribonuclease (RNAse) A and chymotrypsinogen
makes PGs whose release leads to
inflammation, pain, and fever
COX-2
Nitrogenous bases pyrimidines?
C / U / T
a mixture of glycosaminoglycans (anionic mucopolysaccharides), which are polymers containing uronic acid residues, that alternate with glucosamine (GlcN) derivatives (most are sulfated, few are acetylated); anticoagulant
Heparin
MOA (DNA Replication): nalidixic acid, quinolones
Inhibition of DNA gyrase
impaired production of RBCs
folic acid or vitamin B12 deficiency
Steps in PCR
Denaturation -> Annealing->Extension/ Elongation
repair (“gap filling”)
Pol β
the folding pattern of the chain induced by the spatial arrangement of close-lying amino acid residues
Secondary Proteins
