BIOCHEMISTRY 111 Flashcards
Final Exam
1
Q
Matter
A
something that takes up space (volume) and weighs something (mass)
two types of matter: pure substance and mixtures
2
Q
Pure Substance
A
matter made up of one type of element represented by one chemical formula
two types of Pure substance: element and compound
3
Q
Element
A
the simplest form of matter
4
Q
Compound
A
two or more elements that are chemically joined together
5
Q
Mixture
A
a combination of two or more substances
two types of mixtures: heterogenous and homogenous
6
Q
Homogenous Mixture
A
composition is the same throughout
7
Q
Heterogenous Mixture
A
composition is different throughout
8
Q
Atom
A
smallest unit of matter that can exist and keep its chemically unique characteristics
9
Q
Periodic Table of Elements
A
the listing of all the elements found on earth
10
Q
Chemical Symbol
A
the letters that represent the nam of each element
11
Q
Group
A
the vertical column of blocks of elements that have similar chemical behaviors (number of valence electrons)
12
Q
Period
A
the horizontal row of blocks numbered 1-7 with sections 6-7 set apart at bottom (number of energy levels)
13
Q
Chemical Formula
A
represent compounds and the subscripts tell us how many atoms of the preceding element are present in the compound
14
Q
4 Elements that make up biological molecules
A
CHON
15
Q
Physical Change
A
a change int he state of matter but same identity
16
Q
Chemical Change
A
a change in the chemical’s identity as a whole
17
Q
Reactants
A
the starting material on the left side of the chemical equation
18
Q
Products
A
the ending material on the right side of the chemical equation
19
Q
The Law of conservation of mass
A
matter can not be destroyed or created
20
Q
Percent
A
part over whole times 100
21
Q
Mass
A
measure of the amount of material in an object
22
Q
Weight
A
determined by the pull of gravity of an object
23
Q
Volume
A
something that takes up or occupies space (1 mL=1cm^3)
24
Q
Density
A
mass over volume
25
Temperature
the measure of coldness and hotness
OC, 32F,273K-> freezing point
37C,98.6F,310K-> normal body temp.
100C,212F,373K-> boiling point
26
State of matter
physical form in which matter exists
27
Solid
definite shape and volume
28
Liquid
definite volume
29
Gas
no definite volume or shape
30
Accuracy
means that you are taking measurements close to the actual value
31
Precision
means that you report similar in value even if it is not close to the actual value; reproducibility
32
Subatomic Particles
the smallest parts that organize to form atoms
33
Protons
a positively charged subatomic particle (P+)
34
Neutrons
subatomic particle with no charge (n)
35
Electrons
a subatomic particle with a negative charge (e-)
36
Nucleus
the central part of the atom containing protons and neutrons
37
electric Cloud
the area of an atom outside of the nucleus where the electrons can be found
38
Atomic Mass Unit (AMU)
the labels to quantify the mass of very small particles
39
Mass number
is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom
mass #= protons + neutrons
# electrons = # protons
40
Atomic Number
the number above the symbol of an element that represents # of protons in an element
41
isotopes
two or more atoms of an element with same protons but different number of neutrons
42
Atomic Mass
the weighted average mass of all naturally occurring isotopes of an element
43
Nuclear Radiation
the energy emitted spontaneously from the nucleus of an atom
44
Radioactive
describes an element that spontaneously emit nuclear energy
45
Radioactive Decay
the process of a nucleus spontaneously emitting radiation for an isotope to become stable
46
How Severe is Radiation
1. exposure
2. type of radiation
3. time
47
Radioisotope
a radioactive isotope of an element (unstable)
48
Alpha Particle
a form of nuclear radiation consisting of protons and 2 neutrons, 2+ charge and requires a sheet of paper to be blocked
49
Beta Particle
a form of nuclear radiation consisting of a high energy electron emitted from an unstable neutron, carries a negative charge; is blocked by heavy clothing and aluminum foil. (neutron-> proton)
50
Gamma Rays
high energy nuclear radiation emitted to stabilize radioactive nucleus, neither a charge or mass of the radioisotope will change; needs a concrete wall to be stopped or lead apron
51
Positron
a form of nuclear radiation having the same mass as beta particle but with a positive charge (proton-> neutron)
52
Neutron
has no charge, but has weight
53
Ionizing Radiation
a general name for high energy radiation of any kind (bad kind)
54
Nucelar Decay Equation
an equation where the reactant is the radioactive isotope and the products include the new isotope and an ionizing emission particle
55
Half Life
the time it takes for half of the atoms in a radioactive sample to decay
remaining material= original amount x (1/2)^n
56
Energy Levels
in atoms, the electrons can only occupy certain energy levels
electrons must fill lowest energy level first
2n^2= total number of electrons in each energy level
elements in the same group on the periodic table have the same number of electrons in their highest energy level
57
Valence Electrons
electrons found in the highest occupied energy level, the furthest electrons from the nucleus and are the electrons that combine when elements make compounds
58
Noble Gases
the group 8A(18) elements, satisfy the octet rule; elements are unreactive, thus stable
59
Octect Rule
the tendency of atoms to react with other atoms to obtain eight total electrons in their outershell
60
Ion
an atom with a charge due to an unequal number of protons and electrons
61
Anions
an ion with a negative charge; formed when electrons are gained
62
Cations
an ion with a positive charge; formed when electrons are lost
63
Polyatomic Ions
a group of atoms that interact to form an atom
1. hydroxide- OH^-
2.Sulfate- SO4^2-
3.Carbonate- CO3^2-
4. Nitrate- NO3^-
5.Ammonium- NH4^+
6.Phosphate- PO4^3-
7.Bicarbonate- HCO3^-
64
Ionic Bond
the strong attraction between an anion and cation
65
Ionic Compound
the result of two or more ions attracted by ionic bonds to form electrically neutral species
66
Covalent Bond
the result of atoms sharing electrons to achieve an octet in their valence shell (nonmetals)
67
Covalent Compound
a type of compound made up of atoms held together by covalent bond
68
Molecule
the smallest unit of a covalent bond formed when two or more nonmetal atoms are joined
69
Lewis Dot Structure
shows how atoms share electrons in covalent bonding, the electron dot symbol for any atom consists of the elemental symbol plus a dot for each electron
70
Bonding Pair
a pair of electrons shared by two atoms to form a covalent bond and is represented as a dash or line connecting the two electron dot symbols
71
Lone Pairs
a pair of electrons belonging to only one atom
72
Single Bond
a covalent bond formed when two atoms share one pair of electrons
73
double bond
sharing two of its electrons with one atom
74
Triple bond
covalent bonds formed when two atoms share three pairs of electrons
75
Molecular Formula
the chemical formula of a molecular compound
76
binary compounds
a compound that is composed of only two elements
77
Mole
unit to count small objects like atoms
78
Molar Mass
the mass in grams of one mole of a substance for an element
79
Avogadro's Number
the number of particles, molecules, atoms in one mole
6.02x10^23 atoms= 1 mole
80
Tetrahedral
molecular shape with four atoms arranged around a central atom to give an atom an angle of 109.5 degrees
81
Linear
gives an atom an angle of 180 degrees
82
Bent
gives an atom an angle of 104.5 degrees
83
Pyramidal
gives an atom an angle of 107 degrees
84
Triangular planar
gives an atom an angle of 120 degrees
85
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory
determining molecular shape based on repulsion of groups of electrons in valence shell of central atom
86
electronegativity
a measure of the ability for an atom in a covalent bond to attract the bonding electrons
87
Polar Covalent Bond
bond where electrons are strongly attracted to one atom
88
Non Polar Covalent Bond
sharing equally by two atoms
89
Organic Compounds
compounds mainly composed of carbon and hydrogen
90
Biomolecules
the molecules of life including carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins
91
Inorganic Compounds
compounds composed of elements other than carbon and hydrogen
92
Condensed Structural Formula
the arrangement of the carbons and hydrogens are expanded but bonds are not shown; the atoms are listed left to right in order to which they are connected
93
Molecular Formula
shows only the number of each atom in the molecule
94
Lewis Structure
shows the molecules complete connectivity, all atoms and bonds
95
Skeletal Structure
representation of organic compound that shows only the bonding of carbon framework; carbon atom understand to exist at a corned where two lines meet or at end of a line segment if no other element is present
96
Alkanes
a family of organic compounds whose composed of only single bonded carbons and hydrogens (saturated)
nonpolar because the electronegativity of carbon and hydrogen are so similar that the two elements form covalent bonds in which the electrons are shared equally
97
Straight Chain Alkanes
alkanes that have their carbon atoms connected in a single continuous chain
98
Cycloalkanes
hydrocarbons containing a ring of carbon atoms; folding back on itself if it contains one less carbon
99
Heteratom
atoms in an organic compound other than carbon and hydrogen
100
Alkane Names:
1. Methane
2. Ethane
3. propane
4. butane
5. pentane
6, hexane
7, heptane
8. octane
9. nonane
10. decane
101
Alkenes
(unsaturated) a family of organic compounds whose composed of one double bond; its no longer surrounded by hydrogen atoms
double bond between carbon atoms are shorter and stronger than single bonds
102
Alkynes
(unsaturated) a family of organic compounds whose functional group composed of triple bonds
103
Aromatics
(unsaturated) a family of cylic organic compounds whose functional group is a benzene ring, six membered ring with alternating double bonds
104
Saturated Hydrocarbons
organic compounds containing only carbons and hydrogen in which each carbon is bonded to the maximum number of hydrogen atoms (CnH2n+2)
105
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
compounds composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms with one or more double or triple bonds (CnH2n or CnH2n-2)
106
Functional Group
similar group between organic structures that react in similar ways because they have similar functions
107
Fatty Acids
long alkane like hydrocarbon chains bounded to carboxyl group, non polar
108
Saturated Fatty Acid
do not contain double bonds (unhealthy)
109
Unsaturated Fatty Acid
do contain double bonds (healthy)
110
Branched Chain Alkanes
alkanes that have one chain of carbon atoms, the shorted chains are considered branches from the main, longer chain
111
Isomers
a compound with same molecular formula as another but a different arrangement
112
Structural Isomer
same molecular formula but different connectivity of atoms (different names)
113
Conformational Isomer
Same molecular formula with alters only by rotation, about one or more bonds (same name)
114
Stereoisomer
same connectivity but not superimposable
115
Chiral Center
carbon has 4 single bonds with different groups
116
Enantiomer
compounds containing at least one chiral center that are non-superimposable mirror image (rotate everything)
117
Cis Trans
same side or different side; double bonds prevent carbon from rotating
118
Omega Number
Number specifies the position of the first double bond in a fatty acid chain when counting from methyl end
[#C:#DB], w-x
119
Carbohydrate
simple or complex sugar composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen (Cn(H2O)n)
120
Monosaccharide
simple sugar unit containing three or more carbons
glucose galactose, mannose
121
Dissacharides
a carbohydrate composed of two monosaccharides joined through glycosidic bond
sucrose, maltose, lactose
122
Oligosaccharides
carbohydrates composed of three to nine monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bond
123
Polysaccarides
a carbohydrate composed of many monosaccharides in a continuous chain or branched chain
starch, chitin, cellulose
124
Glucose
(monosaccharides) can be broken inside the cells to produce energy
125
Galactose
(monosaccharides) that combines with glucose to form lactose
126
Mannose
(monosaccharides) found in some veg and fruits; not so easily digested
127
Maltose
(disaccharides) two glucose units with glycosidic bond alpa (1-4)
128
Lactose
(disaccharides) glucose and galactose units with glycosidic bond at beta (1-4)
129
Sucrose
(disaccharide) glucose and fructose with glycosidic bond at beta (1-2)
130
Aldehyde
a family of organic compounds whose functional group is a carbonyl bonded t at least one hydrogen
131
Aldose
monosaccharide that contains an aldehyde functional group
132
Alcohol
a fucntional group of organic molecules whose functional group is -OH; very polar
133
Primary Alcohol
has only one alkyl group bonded to the carbon with -OH
134
Secondary Alcohol
has two alkyl groups bonded to the carbon with -OH
135
Tertiary Alcohol
has three alkyl groups bonded between the carbon with -OH
136
Cellulose
(structural polysaccharides) beta D-glucose with beta (1-4) glycosidic bond
137
Chitin
(structural Polysaccharides) beta D-acetylglucosamine with beta (1-4) glycosidic bond
138
Amylose
(storage polysaccharides) alpha D-glucose with alpha (1-4) glycosidic bond
139
Amylopectin
(storage polysaccharides) alpha (1-4) and alpha (1-6)
140
Glycogen
(storage polysaccharides) alpha (1-4) and alpha (1-6)
141
Keytone
a family of organic compounds whose functional group is a carbonyl bonded to at least two alkyl groups
142
Ketose
monosaccharide that contains a ketone functional group
143
Fischer Projection
horizontal line on a chiral center represents wedges and vertical lines on a chiral center center represent dashes; a chiral center is represented as intersection of lines
left is up and right is down
144
D-Sugars
an enantiomer whose configuration is based on the arrangement of the attachments on D-glyceraldheyde, -OH is on the right side
145
L-Sugars
an enantiomer whose configuration is based on the arrangements of the attachment on L-glyceraldhyde, -OH is on the left side
146
Epimer
molecules where only one chiral center is changed
147
Divasteriomers
are only stereisomers that are not mirror image
148
Enantiomers
are pairs f molecules that are mirror images (just switch each chiral enter)
149
Hemiacetal
the functional group formed when an alcohol and aldehyde group combine to form a Haworth Structure
150
Anomer
sugar diasteromers differing only in the position of the hydroxyl at the anomeric carbon
151
Anomeric Carbon
refers to the carbon that reacts to form the hemiocetal in any monosaccharide
152
Pyranose
six membered ring form of monosaccharide that contains 5 carbon and one oxygen atom in the ring
153
Furanose
five membered ring
154
Reducing sugar
a carbohydrate with a free aldehyde group capable of reducing another substance
155
Glycosidic Bond
formed when two hydroxyl groups join, one of which is on an anomeric carbon of a monosaccharide and the other is part of the second monosaccharide to form a disaccharide; H2O is produced
156
Alpha Glycosidic bond
anomeric carbon to the oxygen of another monosaccharide is point downwards
157
Beta Glycosidic Bond
upwards, same direction as the CH2OH
158
Oxidation
losing electrons thus hydrogen and gaining oxygen
159
reduction
gaining electrons thus hydrogen and losing oxygen
160
Change of State
the change that occurs when a substance that exists in one state of matter becomes another state of matter
161
Melting Point
the temperature at which molecules move from the solid to the liquid phase
stronger and more numerous forces between molecules = higher melting point. The longer the structure, the more they can pack thus have a high melting point. Unsaturated fats have lower melting points. cid double bond lowers melting point to 60 degrees in Oleic Acid
162
Boiling Point
the temperature at which the molecules of a substance change from liquid to gas
163
Attractive Forces
an attraction of opposite charges between molecules, strongly affect properties of solid and liquids
164
London Forces
the weakest attractive forces, all compounds exhibit London forces
165
Dipole Dipole attraction
attraction partially positive end of one polar molecule to a partially negative end of a second polar molecule
166
Hydrogen Bonding
strong dipole dipole interaction of hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to O,N,F
167
Ion Dipole Attractions
electrical attraction between an ion and a polar molecule
168
Ionic Attractions
stronger than hydrogen bonding, an attraction between a + and - to form a salt
169
Lipids
fatty acids that have a hydrophobic and hydrophilic region
170
Oil
liquid at room temperature; low boiling point and can not get close because of cis double bonds
171
Fat
solid at room temperature; high boiling point
172
Amphipathic Compounds
have polar and nonpolar sections in one molecule
173
Micelles
spherical structures that allow ion dipole interaction while non polar trails associate with each other
174
Solution
a homogenous mixture where particles are dispersed individually and evenly throughout
175
Solute
the solute is a substance in a solution present in the smaller amount
176
Solvent
the substance in a solution present in the larger amount ; only one solvent in a solution
177
Properties of Solutions
1. particles are evenly distributed
2. components do not chemically react with each other
3. aqueous solutions are transparent
4. components do not separate upon standing
5. concentration can be changed
178
Colloid
has smaller particles that do not separate; they stay mixed together
179
Suspension
a mixture containing particles greater than 100nm in diameter; separate upon standing
180
solubility
defined as the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in solvent; depends on temperature and polarity of solute
temperature rises= increase solid solubility
temperature rises= decrease gas solubility
181
Unsaturated Solution
a solution containing less than the maximum amount of solute capable of dissolving
182
Saturated Solution
a solution containing the maximum amount of solute capable of dissolving in the solution at given temp
183
Henry's Law
as pressure goes up the solubility of gas in water also goes up. the amount of gas that can dissolve in a liquid increases as pressure of gas in the space above the liquid increases
184
Electrolyte
a substance that conducts electricity because it dissociates into ions in aqueous solution
185
Strong Electrolyte
is ionic compound dissolve in water it will completely dissociate
186
Non-Electrolyte
a substance that doe not conduct electricity because it does not ionize in aqueous solution
187
Weak Electrolyte
a substance that weakly conducts electricity because it partially ionizes in aqueous solutions covalent bonded compounds specifically carboxylic acid and amines
188
Equivalent
a unit of concentration that relates the change in a solution of the number of ions or the moles of ions present in the solution
Na+= 1 Eq/1 mol
Ca2+=2Eq/1 mol
189
Concentration
The amount of solute dissolved in a certain amount of solution
= amount of solute (g)/ amount of solution (mL)
190
Molarity
a unit of concentration defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per liter of solution
=moles of solute/Liters of solution
191
percent concentration
number of parts out of the whole times 100
part solute/part solution times 100
192
Percent Mass
mass of solute and mass of solvent
g solute/g solution times 100
193
Percent mass Volume
g solute/mL solution times 100
194
Dilution
changing the concentration
Ci x Vi=Cf x Vf
Vf/Vi= solution dilution factor
195
Acid
a substance that dissolves in water and produces hydrogen ions (H+), according to the Arrhenius Theory. All acids are proton donors, according to the Bronsted Lowry Theory
196
Bases
a substance that dissolves in water and produces hydroxide ions, according to Arrhenius Theory. All bases are proton acceptors according to Bronsted-Lowry Theory
197
Strong Acids
an acid that completely ionizes in water, which means they break up completely into ions when placed in water, forming hydronium ions and anions
198
Weak Acids
an acid that ionizes only slightly in solution
199
Strong Bases
a base that completely ionizes in water because they are ionic compounds which dissociate in water to give aqueous solution containing a metal ion and a hydroxide ion
200
Weak Bases
a base that ionizes only slightly in solution
201
Acidic
a term that describes an aqueous solution in which the concentration of Hydronium ions is greater than the concentration of hydroxide ions
PH<7 [H+] increases
202
Basic
a term that describes an aqueous solution in which the concentration of Hydronium ions is less than the concentration of hydroxide ions
PH>7 [H+] decreases
203
Salt
an ionic compound containing a metal or a polyatomic ion as the cation and a nonmetal or plyatomic ion as an anion
204
neutralization
the reaction between an acid and base (strong) to form salt and water
205
Chemical Equilibrium
a state in a reversible chemical reaction where both the forward and reverse reactions are occurring at the same rate
206
Equilibrium Constant
(k) a constant that is equal to the ration of concentration of products to reactants at equilibrium
k= [products]/[reactants]
k= [c]^c[D]^d/[A]^a[B]^b
solids and liquids are not included
207
La Chatelier's Principle
a chemical reaction that has been distributed from equilibrium will shift its equilibrium to offset the disturbance
208
Acid Dissociation Constant
(ka) a constant that establishes the ratio of products to reactants for a weak acid at equilibrium
larger Ka value=stronger acid
209
Conjugate Base
the product after an acid donates a proton in reverse reaction
210
Conjugate Acid
the product after a base accepts a proton in the reverse reaction
211
Auto-ionization of Water
spontaneous reaction of two water molecules to form hydronium and hydroxide
212
Neutral PH
term that describes a solution with equal concentrations of H+ and OH-
PH=-log [H3O+]
10^-PH=[H3O+]
213
Pka
a measure of the acidity of a weak acid
stronger acid= lower pka
PKa= -log [ka]
10^-PKa=[Ka]
214
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
a modified form of the equilibrium constant expression useful for determining the ratio of conjugate base to acid at a give PH
PH=PKa+log [conjugate base]/[acid]
10^PH-PKa=[conjugate base]/[acid]
PH=PKa equilibrium
Ph>PKa conjugate base
PH
215
Buffers
a solution containing a weak acid and its conjugate base or weak base and its conjugate acid that resists the change in PH when acids and bases are added
216
Bicarbonate Buffer System
CO3+H2O-><-HCO3-+H30+
217
Respiratory Acidiosis
blood PH is lower than 7.35 caused by change in breathing patterns; CO2 build up thus it shifts right due to hypoventilation
218
Respiratory Alkalosis
when blood PH is too high due to hyperventilation; exhaling too much CO2 thus shifting left. The ph is too basic
219
Metabolic Acidosis
excess acid is added to the bloodstream due to chemical reactions in the body, treatment includes administering bicarbonate which will increase PH
220
Metabolic Alkalosis
indicates chemical reactions within the body caused by alkalization of the body; treatment includes breathing into paper bag which will increase CO2 level which will then increase H3O+ ions by shifting equilibrium to the right and lowering PH
221
Alpha Carbon
the carbon in amino acids that is bonded to the carboxylate ion, the pronated amine, a hydrogen atom, and side chain R group (chiral center)
222
Alpha Amino Group
the pronated Amine bonded to the alpha carbon in an amino acid
222
Alpha carboxylate group
the carboxylate ion bonded to the alpha carbon in an amino acid
223
Zwitteron ion
the ionic form of amino acid that has both a positive and negative charged groups
223
Enantiomers
compounds that contain a single chiral center that can be in two forms
L-amino acid (pronated amine is on the left side)
R-amino acid (pronated amine is on the right side)
223
peptide bond
an amide bond that joins two amino acids
224
C Terminus
in peptide, the amino acid with the free carboxylate ion
225
N terminus
in peptide bond, amino acid with the free left pronated amine
226
Amide
a family of organic compounds characterized by a functional group containing a carbonyl bonded to a nitrogen atom
227
Primary Structure
the order of the amino acids bonded by peptide bonds forming a polypeptide chain
228
secondary structure
regularly repeating patterns of structure within the overall 3D structure of the protein stabilized by hydrogen bonding along protein backbone
229
Alpha Helix
right handed coiled spring
230
Beta Pleated Sheets
zig zag; fan structured
231
Tertiary Strucutre
the folding through R groups associated with intermolecular forces between R groups
232
Quaternary Structure
the binding of two or more polypeptide chains to form a biologically active protein
233
Denaturation
a prcoess that disrutps the stabilizing attractive forces
234
enzymes
act as catalyst compounds that accelerate the reactions of metabolism but are not consumed or changed by the reactions (tertiary structure)
235
Proximity
enzyme brings together all the necessary components for a reaction to occur faster
236
Orientation
the active site brings those components together in a particular way
237
Bond Strength
weak substrate substances bonds which breaks faster
238
Active Site
Formed during tertiary structure, a pocket lined with amino acids for substrate to bind
239
Lock and Key Model
a model describing the initial interaction of an enzyme with its substrate; each enzymes has only one substrate with a shape complementary to the active site of the enzyme; fit together without changing shape
240
Induced fit model
model describing the initial interaction of an enzyme to its substrate; an enzymes active site and its substrate have flexible shape that are roughly complementary and adjust to allow the formation of ES
241
Cofactors
inorganic substances necessary for the function of some enzymes (minerals)
242
coenzymes
organic substances necessary for funtion of some enzymes; vitamins
243
Inhibitor
a molecule that causes an enzyme catalytic activity to decline
244
Reversible inhibitor
the lowering of enzyme catalytic activity caused by competitive or noncompetitive inhibitor that can be reversed
245
competitive
a molecule structurally similar to the substrate that composes for the active site
246
noncompetitive
a molecule that inhibits an enzyme catalytic activity by interacting with a site other than the active site; resulting in the distortion if the enzyme shape
247
Irreversible Inhibitor
the permeant loss of enzyme activity
248
Ribose
oxygen on carbon 2 of pentose
249
Deoxyribose
no oxygen on carbon 2 of pentose
250
Nucleotide
a pentose sugar condensed with one of five of the nitrogenous bases at carbon 1 and up to three phosphates on C3
251
Nucleoside
a pentose sugar condensed with one of the five nitrogenous bases at carbon 1
252
Complementary Base Pair
adenine=thymine adenine=uracil guanine=cytosine
253
Purine
adenine and guanine
254
Pyriminine
cytosine, uracil, thymine
255
Nucleic Acids
large molecules composed of nucleotides found in cells as double stranded helical DNA and single stand RNA
256
Phosphodiester Bonds
bond linkage adjacent nucleotides in a nucleic acid; this bond connects the 3 prime end OH with phosphate linked on C5
257
Transcription
the transfer of gene copt from DNA to RNA via RNA polymerase to create mRNA
258
Translation
reading of codons on mRNA to construct amino acid chain via tRNA and rRNA
259
5 prime end
phospate
260
3 prime end
hydroxyl on third carbon
261
Metabolism
sum of all the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life
262
Catabolism
metabolic chemical reactions in which larger molecules are broken down into smaller ones. these reactions tend to be oxidative and produce energy (exergonic -delta G); hydrolysis
263
Anabolism
metabolic chemical reactions in which smaller molecules are combined to form larger ones, these reactions tend to be reductive and require energy (endergonic + delta G); condensation
264
Mitochondria
cell organelle where energy producing reactions take place
265
ATP
Energy currency of the cell, undergoes hydrolysis to ADP
266
Digestion
the breaking down of large molecules into smaller components for absorption, usually through hydrolysis starting from the saliva and all the way to the small intestine
267
Emulsification
the breaking down of large insoluble globes into smaller droplets via an ampiphatic molecule
268
Nutrition label conversion
protein-> 4 per gram
carb-> 4 per gram
fat -> 9 per gram
alcohol-> 7 per gram
269
Gbuconeogensis
the anabolic process of synthesizing glucose
270
Glycolysis
a process in which glucose is partially broken down by cells in enzyme reactions that do not need oxygen (10 reactions) that occur in cytoplasm
glucose+2 NAD+2ADP+2Pi->2 pyruvate +2ATP+2NADH+2H+
271
Aerobic
when ample oxygen is present, pyruvate is oxidized further into acetyl coenzyme A
272
Pyruvate Decarboxylation (link reaction)
is the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl COA by the enzyme complex pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
2 Pyruvate+2NAD+2COA->2 Acetly COA+2NADH+2CO2
273
Anaerobic
when oxygen is in short supply, pyruvate is reduced to lactate. produces NAD+ cycles back into glycolysis to oxidize more G3P allowing production of more ATP
274
Fermentation
anaerobic production of ethanol from pyruvate in yeast
275
Oxidative Decarboxylation
an oxidation in which a carboxylate is released as a CO2
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Citric Acid Cycle
a series of reactions that degrades two carbon acetyl groups from acetyl cOA into CO2, generating high energy molecules in the process like NADH and FADH2
2 Acetyl COA+6NAH+2ADP+2Pi+2FADH-> 4 CO2+6 NADH+2FADH2+ATP+6H+
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Electron transport train
(inner mitochondrial membrane) electrons are passed from one molecule to another and energy released in these electrons transfers to form an electrical chemical gradient (4 complexes)
32 total ATP created
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Electrochemical Gradient
a difference in both concentration and electrical charge of an ion across a membrane, driving force of oxidative phosphorylation (the creation of ATP)
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Chemiosmotic Model
the conservation of energy from the transfer of electrons int eh ETC by pumping H+ into the inter membrane space to produce a H+ gradient that produces the energy to synthesize ATP
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Conversions of NADH and FADH2
2.5 ATP=1 NADH
1.5 ATP=1 FADH2
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Beta Oxidation
(mitochondrial matrix) the degradation of fatty acids by removing two carbon segments from a fatty acid at the oxidized carbon
count carbons and divide by two=acetyl coa molecules
10x number of acetyl coa molecules
#acetyl Coa molecules-1=cycles of beta oxidation
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Isomerization
the process where the reactant and product differ in structure while the molecular formula remains the same
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Phosphorylation
the process of adding a phosphate group, often indicated by prefix "phosphate" or "phospho"
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Phosphate transfer
process of transferring of a phosphate group (ADP to ATP)
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fructose vs glucose
in the liver, fructose is enzymatically converted to G3P and enters glycolysis at step 5, after all the regulation steps, all fructose in the cell will be converted to pyruvate
Fructose that is metabolized in the muscle enters the glycolysis as fructose 6 phosphate and is enzymatically regulated. fructose that is not metabolized in muscle is metabolized in the liver to yield pyruvate and acetyl COA, an excess of which would be stored as fat
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Bile salts
emulsify fats by breaking larger fat globules into smaller ones for internal absorption
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Digestion of Starch
glucose galactose and fructose
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Where does digestion take place?
starch undergoes digestion in the mouth
no carbohydrates are digested in stomach
disaccharides and oligosaccharides are digested in small intestine
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