BIO ANATMY & PHYSIOLOGY-141 Flashcards

Question 1

Q

Question 2

Q

Anatomy

Answer

A

body’s structure

Question 3

Q

Gross Anatomy

Answer

A

is the study of larger structures of the body; those visible without the use of a microscope

Question 4

Q

Microscopic Anatomy

Answer

A

is the study of structures that can be observed only using a microscope

Question 5

Q

Cystology

Answer

A

study of cells

Question 6

Q

Histology

Answer

A

study of tissues

Question 7

Q

Regional Antaomy

Answer

A

the study of interrelationships of all the structures in a specific body region

Question 8

Q

Systemic Anatomy

Answer

A

the structures that make up a discrete body system

Question 9

Q

Physiology

Answer

A

the function of the structure

Question 10

Q

Biomedical Research

Answer

A

applies the principles of the physical sciences to medicine

Question 11

Q

Chemokine Receptors (CCR5)

Answer

A

are required for HIV to enter and infect immune cells, thus killing them. However, mutation delta 32 of CCR5 alters this receptor’s structure which prevents HIV from infecting cells, thus people with this mutation are protected from HIV infection

Question 12

Q

Green fluorescent protein (GFP)

Answer

A

anatomy of protein can be transferred to other organisms’ DNA for them to also glow.

Question 13

Q

Channelrhodopsin

Answer

A

protein expressed by algae which aids algae in moving towards the sun

Question 14

Q

Fecal Microbiota Tranplant (FMT)

Answer

A

can control C.Diff infection by adding healthy bacteria into the recipient’s intestines

Question 15

Q

Biological Levels of Organization

Answer

A

a hierarchy of complex biological structures and system that define life using a reductionist approach
1. subatomic particles
2. atoms
3. molecules
4. organelles
5. cells
6. tissue
7. organs
8. organ system
9. Organism

Question 16

Q

subatomic Particles

Answer

A

protons, neutrons, electrons

Question 17

Q

atoms

Answer

A

the smallest unit of any of the elements

Question 18

Q

molecules

Answer

A

two or more atoms combine

Question 19

Q

organelles

Answer

A

flexible membranes that enclose cytoplasm with different functional pieces

Question 20

Q

cells

Answer

A

the smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism

Question 21

Q

tissues

Answer

A

a group of many similar cells that work together to perform a specific task

Question 22

Q

organs

Answer

A

an anatomically distinct structure of the body composed of two or more tissue types

Question 23

Q

organ system

Answer

A

group of organs that work together to perform major functions

Question 24

Q

organism

Answer

A

the highest level of organization, a living being that has cellular structure and that can independently perform all physiologic functions necessary for life

Question 25

Q

Integumentary System

Answer

A

(nails, hair, skin, sweat glands)
-site of many receptors
-regulates body temperature
-provides protection
-produce vitamin D
-prevents water loss

Question 26

Q

Skeletal system

Answer

A

(cartilage, bones, joints)
-provides protection and support
-allows body movement
-produced red blood cells
-stores materials and adipose

Question 27

Q

Muscular System

Answer

A

(muscles attached to skeleton by tendons)
-produces body heat
-produces body movement

Question 28

Q

Nervous System

Answer

A

(brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory receptors)
-major regulatory system that detects sensations and controls movement
-psychological processes

Question 29

Q

Endocrine System

Answer

A

(glands)
-regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction
-secretes hormones

Question 30

Q

Cardiovascular system

Answer

A

(heart, blood vessels, blood)
-transports nutrients, wast, gases and hormones throughout the body
-regulated body temperature

Question 31

Q

Lymphatic System

Answer

A

(lymphatic Vessels, lymph nodes, spleen)
-removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph
-combats disease
-maintains tissue fluid balance and absorbs dietary fats from the digestive tract

Question 32

Q

Respiratory Sytem

Answer

A

(lungs, respiratory passageways)
-exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and air
-regulates blood PH

Question 33

Q

Digestive System

Answer

A

(mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organ)
-performs the mechanical and chemical process of digestion, absorption of nutrients and elimination of waste

Question 34

Q

urinary System

Answer

A

(kidneys, urinary bladder, urethra, ducts)
-removes waste products from the blood
-regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance

Question 35

Q

reproductive system

Answer

A

(uterine tubes, vagina, ovaries, penis, testes, mammary glands)
-produces sec hormones and gametes
-supports embryo and fetus until birth
-produces milk for infants

Question 36

Q

homestasis

Answer

A

the state of steady internal conditions maintained by living things

Question 37

Q

Set Point

Answer

A

is the psychological value around which the normal range fluctuates

Question 38

Q

Normal range

Answer

A

the restricted set of values that is optimally healthy and stable

Question 39

Q

negative feedback loop

Answer

A

mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point, maintains body parameters within their normal range
example: in the control of blood glucose, specific endocrine cells in the pancreas detect excess glucose (stimuli) in the bloodstream. These pancreatic beta cells response to the increased level of blood glucose by releasing hormone insulin into the bloodstream, the insulin signals skeletal muscle fibers, fat cells, and liver cells to take up extra glucose

Question 40

Q

Sensor (receptors)

Answer

A

component that monitors a psychological value

Question 41

Q

Control center

Answer

A

component that compares the value to the normal range

Question 42

Q

effector

Answer

A

causes a change to reverse the situation and return the value to normal

Question 43

Q

Positive Feedback Loop

Answer

A

intensifies a change int he body’s physiological condition rather than reversing it, the system moves farther away from the normal range
example: child birth

Question 44

Q

Cell Membrane

Answer

A

(plasma membrane) separates the inner contents of a cell from its exterior environment, provides a protective barrier around the cell and regulates which materials can pass in or out
the cell membrane is composed of back to back phospholipids, cholesterol is also present which contributes tot he fluidity of the membrane

Question 45

Q

Phospholipid

Answer

A

has a phosphate group (head) and two side by side chains of fatty acids (tails); is an amphipathic molecule, the phosphate head is negatively charged, making the head polar and hydrophilic this is attracted to the intercellular and extracellular environments. the lipid tails are uncharged and non polar thus are hydrophobic.
One lipid tail is saturated while the other is unsaturated which helps add to the fluidity of the tails in motion

Question 46

Q

Hydrophilic

Answer

A

attracted to water

Question 47

Q

hydrophobic

Answer

A

repelled by water

Question 48

Q

amphipathic

Answer

A

molecule that is both hydrophobic and hydrophilic

Question 49

Q

intracellular fluid

Answer

A

fluid interior of the cell

Question 50

Q

extracellular fluid

Answer

A

fluid outside the cell

Question 51

Q

Ligand

Answer

A

specific molecule that binds to and activates a receptor

Question 52

Q

Major Functions of Cells

Answer

A

metabolism and energy use
synthesis of products like molecules, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids
communication through autocrine, paracrine, endocrine signaling
reproduction (mitosis and meiosis)

Question 53

Q

Integral proteins

Answer

A

a protein that is embedded in the membrane

Question 54

Q

channel protein

Answer

A

type of integral protein that selectively allows particular materials, such as certain ions, to pass into or out of the cell
example: sodium ion channels

Question 55

Q

Enzyme

Answer

A

catalyze chemical reactions
example: adenylate catalyse

Question 56

Q

Carrier Protein

Answer

A

type of integral protein that moves ions or molecules across the plasma membrane, ion building to the carrier protein changes the structures and moves
example: glucose transporter

Question 57

Q

Receptor

Answer

A

a type of recognition protein that can selectively bind to a specific molecule outside the cell and the binding induces a chemical reaction within the cell

Question 58

Q

Inotropic receptor

Answer

A

contain ion channels, short distance, short lasting. allows passage of specific ions by opening a channel when a ligand, neurotransmitter binds to receptor
example: ligand gated sodium and potassium channels

Question 59

Q

metabotropic receptor

Answer

A

changed chemistry of the cell, no ion channels, links to G protein, long lasting and widespread

Question 60

Q

Marker molecules

Answer

A

allow cells to identify cells or other molecules
example: human leukocyte antigens

Question 61

Q

Attachment proteins

Answer

A

anchor cells to other cells or to extracellular molecules
examples: integrins and cadherins

Question 62

Q

Glycoprotein

Answer

A

a protein that has carbohydrate molecules attached which extend into the extracellular matrix

Question 63

Q

Peripheral proteins

Answer

A

typically found on the inner or outer surface of lipid bilayer but can also be attached to the internal and external surface of an integral protein

Question 64

Q

Selective Permeability

Answer

A

allows only substances meeting certain criteria to pass through it unaided; in the case of the cell membrane, only relatively small, nonpolar materials can move through the lipid bilayer

Answer 64

A

the movement of substances across a membrane without the expenditure of cellular energy

Answer 65

A

is the difference in concentration of a substance across a space. molecules will spread from where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated

Answer 66

A

the movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration

Answer 67

A

the diffusion process used for those substances that cannot cross the lipid bilayer due to their size, charge, and polarity with help from protein channels and specialized transport proteins

Answer 68

A

is the minimum pressure applied to a solution to stop the flow of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane

Answer 69

A

describes how well an extracellular solution can change the volume of a cell by affecting osmosis

Answer 70

A

the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane

Answer 71

A

two solution that have the same concentration of solutes; when cells and their extracellular environments are isotonic the concentration of water molecules is the same outside and inside the ells, cells maintain their normal shape/function

Answer 72

A

higher concentration of solutes than another solution, water tends to issue outward thus the cell will shrink

Answer 73

A

a solution with a lower solute concentration than another solution; water molecules tend to diffuse inward thus will take on too much water and swell, which the risk of eventually bursting

Answer 74

A

is movement of substances across the membrane using energy form ATP, often with the help of a carrier protein and usually against its concentration gradient

Answer 75

A

transports sodium out of a cell while moving potassium into the cell, most abundant in nerve cells. which are constantly pumping out sodium and pulling in potassium ions to maintain an electrical gradient. In nerve cells, the electrical gradient exists between the inside and outside of the cell, with the inside being negatively charged relative to the outside because three sodium ions are pumped out of the cell while two potassium ions enter the cell for each ATP molecule used

Answer 76

A

membranous sac that is spherical and hollow organelle bounded by a lipid bilayer membrane

Answer 77

A

jelly like substances within the cell, provides the fluid medium necessary for biochemical reactions

Answer 78

A

is one of several different types of membrane enclosed bodies of the cell each performing a unique function. the organelles and the cytosol composed the cell’s cytoplasm

Answer 79

A

the cells central organelles which contains the cells DNA

Answer 80

A

a system of channels that is continuous with the nuclear membrane covering the nucleus and composed of the same lipid bilayer materials. the ER provides passages throughout much of the cell that function in transporting, synthesizing and storing materials

Answer 81

A

membranous tubules and flattened sacs with attached ribosomes that synthesize proteins which are usually transported to the Golgi apparatus

Answer 82

A

membranous tubules and flattened sacs with no ribosomes attached which manufactures lipids and carbohydrates; detoxifies harmful chemicals and stores calcium

Answer 83

A

flattened membrane sacs stacked on each other that modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids for secretion or internal use

Answer 84

A

membrane bound vesicle pinched off Golgi apparatus that contains digestive enzymes

Answer 85

A

spherical, rac shaped or threadlike structures enclosed by double membrane: inner membrane forms projections called cristae; are major sites of ATP synthesis when O2 is available

Answer 86

A

membrane bound vesicle that serves as one site of lipid and amino acid degradation, breaks down hydrogen peroxide

Answer 87

A

serves as a site of protein synthesis

Answer 88

A

tubelike protein complex in the cytoplasm that breaks down proteins in the cytoplasm

Answer 89

A

is a group of fibrous proteins that provide structural support for cells, but this is only one of the function of the cytoskeleton; critical for cell motility,. cell reproduction and transportation of substances within the cell

Answer 90

A

can serve as the cellular origin point for microtubules extending outward that assists in the seperation of DNA during cell division

Answer 91

A

theory states that genetic information flows only in one direction, from DNA to RNA to protein, or RNA directly to protein

Answer 92

A

used to describe a group of specialized cells found together in body (cells+extracellular matrix)

Answer 93

A

large network of proteins and other molecules that surround, support, and give structure to cells and tissues in the body

Answer 94

A

sheets of cells that cover exterior surfaces of the body, line internal cavities, and passageways, and form certain glands. Mostly composed of cells and little ECM. cells move from deep to superficial surfaces. Avascular (little blood vessels) meaning nutrients and gasses must diffuse from blood vessels and pass through the basement layer

Answer 95

A

binds the cells and organs of the body together; functions in the protection, support, and integration of all parts of the body
cells are dispersed in matrix; which usually includes a large amount of extracellular material produced by the connective tissue cells that are embedded within it

Answer 96

A

excitable, responding to stimulation and contracting to provide movement and occur at three major types (smooth, cardiac, and skeletal)

Answer 97

A

excitable, allowing the propagation of electrochemical signals in the form of nerve impulses that communicate between different regions of the body
composed of neurons and glia

Answer 98

A

thin layer of sheet of cells that cover the outside of the body, the organs, internal passageways, that lead to the exterior of the body and the linking of moveable joints

Answer 99

A

formed solely from connective tissue

Answer 100

A

type of connective tissue membrane that lines the cavity of a freely moveable joint, produce fluid within the joint

Answer 101

A

composed of epithelium attached to layer of connective tissue

Answer 102

A

a composite of connective tissue and epithelium which line the body cavities and hollow passages that open to the exterior environment,

Answer 103

A

epithelial membrane line composed of mesodermally derived epithelium called mesothelium that is supported by connective tissue. these membrane line the coelomic cavities of the body (do not open to the outside) and cover the organs located within their cavity

Answer 104

A

stratified squamous epithelial membrane resting on top of connective tissue, skin, covers the body surface

Answer 105

A

process of removing tissue sample from a living patient

Answer 106

A

post mortem examination of organs to determine cause of death (chronic traumatic encephalopathy-head trauma causing brain to be smaller and ventricle larger)

Answer 107

A

provide the body’s first line of protection form physical, chemical, and biological wear and tear
cells act as gatekeepers of the body controlling permeability and allowing selective transfer of materials across the physical barrier
many epithelial cells are capable of secretion and release mucousy and specific chemical compounds into their apical surface
capable of regularly regenerating cells of the skin and digestive tract

Answer 108

A

major component of the matrix in connective tissue. gel like substance that traps moisture and composed of polysaccharides, hyaluronic acid and proteins

Answer 109

A

enclosing and separating other tissues (seperate muscles, arteries, and veins)
connects different tissue to one another
supporting and moving the body (joints between bones are composed of cartilage)
storing compounds (adipose tissue fats and bones store minerals)
cushioning and insulating
transportation (blood transport nutrients. hormones and immune cells)
protection

Answer 110

A

attached to bones and its contraction makes possible locomotion, facial expression, posture and other voluntary movement of the body. Contractions with a force and there fore is responsible for movement. muscle contractions is accomplished by the interactions of contractile proteins (actin and myosin)
striated and multi-nucleated and tubular
during embryonic development cells fuse together into a larger structure with multinuclei to form muscle fiber cells

Answer 111

A

forms contractile walls of the heart, cardiomyocytes appear to be striated with single cells typically with a single centrally located nucleus. cardiomyocyte attach to one another with specialized cell junctions called intercalated discs. cells form long and branched cardiac muscles

Answer 112

A

tissue contraction is responsible for involuntary movement in internal organs; no visible striations with single nuceli and short

Answer 113

A

propagate information via electrochemical impulses called action potential, are electrically excitable cells capable of sending and receiving signals that provide the body with information

Answer 114

A

supporting neurons and modulating their information propagation; essential cells for the brain and spinal cord and peripheral nerves. do not have a synapse

Answer 115

A

limits the extent of injury, partially or fully eliminates the cause of injury and initiates repair and regeneration of damaged cells/tissues

Answer 116

A

redness (due to vasodilation)
swelling (due to vasodilation)
pain (due to stimulation of sensory neurons)
local heat (vasodilation)
loss of function (tissue damage)

Answer 117

A

chemical mediators of inflammation (histamines) upon tissue injury, damage cells release inflammatory chemical signals that evoke local vasodilation, an increase in blood flow results in apparent redness and heat. Recruit white blood cells to the site of inflammation
capillaries dilate and become leaky, this increase in blood flow and clotting factors can diffuse into the tissue. clotting (coagulation) reduced blood loss from damaged blood vessels and a network of fibrin proteins that trap blood cells and bind the edges of the wound together
immune cells, water, and proteins migrate into the injury site causing tissue to swell (edema). Scab forms when clot dries, reducing the risk of infection. fibroblasts from the surrounding connective tissue releases the collagen and extracellular material lost by the injury. Phagocytic cells (macrophages) consume pathogens and debris

Answer 118

A

provides the body with overall protection. the deeper layer is well vascularized and has numerous sensory input and autonomic/sympathetic nerve fibers for communication to and from the brain
the skin is made up of multiple layers of cells and tissues which are held together to an underlying structure of connective tissue

Answer 119

A

stem cell that manufactures and stores the protein keratin (an intracellular fibrous protein that gives hair, nails, and skin their hardness)
cells in all layers except the stratum Basale are called keratinocytes. the keratinocytes int he stratum corneum are dead and regularly slough away, being replaced by cells from the deeper layers (move superficially)

Answer 120

A

superficial, four to five layers composed of keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium. it does not have any blood vessels within it. Protects against potential damage from abrasion and reduced water loss
(deep to superficial: stratum basal, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidium, and stratum corneum)

Answer 121

A

deepest epidermal layer and attaches the epidermis to the basal lamina. cells in stratum basale bond to the dermis via intertwining collagen fibers, refereed to as the basement layer

Answer 122

A

is found on the superficial portion of the dermis; it increases the strength of the connection between the epidermis and dermis

Answer 123

A

cuboidal shaped stem cell that is the precursors of the keratinocytes of epidermis; this cell constantly undergoes mitosis to produce new cells. as new cells form, the existing cells are pushed superficially away from the stratum basale

Answer 124

A

functions as a receptor and is responsible for stimulating sensory neurons that the brain perceives as touch, most abundant on hands and feet

Answer 125

A

produces the pigment melanin which gives hair and skin their color and alos protects living cells of the epidermis from the ultraviolet radiation damage

Answer 126

A

spiny in appearance due to the protruding cell processes that joins the cells via desmosome (interlocking with each other and strengthen the bond between cells), cells begin to flatten and produce keratin, composed of 8-10 layers of keratinocytes

Answer 127

A

grainy appearance due to further changes of the keratinocytes, become flatter and cell membrane become thicker and produce large among of protein keratin (fibrous) and keratohyalin, where cells die

Answer 128

A

Smooth, seemingly translucent 3-5 layers of the epidermis ONLY IN THICK SKIN, keratinized cells are dead and flattened from keratohyalin. Thick skin is only found in areas where body undergoes abrasion, thick skin has a thinner dermis than the skin and does not contain hair, sebaceous glands or apocrine sweat glands

Answer 129

A

most superficial layer of the epidermis and is the layer exposed to the outside environment, usually 15-30 layers of cells, the dry dead layer helps prevent the penetration of microbes and the dehydration of underlying tissues and provides a mechanic protection against abrasion

Answer 130

A

deeper core, it contains blood and lymph vessels, nerves and other structure like sweat glands and hair particle, made up of two layers of connective tissue which gives skin its strength and durability

Answer 131

A

made up of loos, areolar connective tissue which means the collagen and elastin fibers of this layer form a loose mesh , projects into the stratum basale. contains fibroblasts small number of adipocytes, abundance of small blood vessels, phagocytes, lymphatic capillaries, nerve fibers, and touch receptors

Answer 132

A

composed of dense, irregular connective tissue this layer is well vascularized and has rich sensory and sympathetic nerve supply

Answer 133

A

serves to connect the skin to the underlying fascia of the bones and muscles; consists of wall vascularized and loose areolar connective tissue and adipose tissue, subcutaneous tissue (not part of the skin) 1/2 of the other body stored lipid/energy and deals with insulation and padding

Answer 134

A

cellular vesicle that transfer melanin into the keratinocytes, produced in the stratum basale

Answer 135

A

exists in black and brown skin color; dark skinned individuals produce more melanin than those with pale skin; the accumulation of the melanin protects the DNA from UV ray damage and break down of folic acid but can cause a higher probability for vitamin D deficiency

Answer 136

A

provides a red color, individuals with pale skin are more likely to have melanoma, skin color of the skin is influences by a number of pigments including melanin, carotene, hemoglobin, and blood circulation

Answer 137

A

protection: the skin is the covering of the body and acts as barrier protecting the body from UV light, microorganisms, and prevents dehydration. defends against abrasive activities due to contact with Grit
sensation:the integumentary system have sensory neurons (skin receptors) that detect heat, cold, touch, pressure, and pain
thermoregulation: the skin plays a major role in regulating body temperature through modulation of blood flow through the kin and the activation of sweat glands
vitamin D Production: when exposed to UV light, the skin produces a molecule that can transform into the hormonal form of vitamin D, an important regulator of calcium homeostasis. Vitamin D regulate many other cellular functions in your body like anti-inflammatory and immune health properties. Vitamin D is important for normal absorption of calcium and phosphorus which are required for healthy bones; general immunity
Excretion: small amounts of waste products are exited through the skin and glands

Answer 138

A

precursor molecule (dehydrocholesterol) in skin converted to cholecalciferol when exposed to UV light, which is released into the blood (integumentary system)
cholecalciferol is transported to live where it is modified and transported into the kidneys through the blood (urinary system and circulatory system)
at kidneys, the substance is agin modified to form active vitamin D which stimulates the uptake of calcium and phosphate at the small intestine (digestive system)

Answer 139

A

the most common type of cancer, where UV radiation damage DNA in skin stem cells, causing mutations which can cause abnormal cell growth and metabolism (fair skinned individuals have less melanin are at an increased risk of developing skin cancer compared with dark skinned individuals)

Answer 140

A

is the most common type of skin cancer in stratum basale; tumors often appear as an open sore that bleeds, oozes and crusts. can be reddish, shiny, pearly, bumpy. removal or destruction of tumor cures most cases

Answer 141

A

the second most common type of skin cancer; affects cells in the stratum spinosum and can appear as a wart like growth, scaly red patch and open sore. Growth is elevated with a central depression and may bleed. removal or destruction of tumor cures most cases

Answer 142

A

is the least common type of skin cancer but most deadly, accounting for 77% of skin cancer deaths in the US. Tumors arise from melanocytes making them appear pigmented. if melanoma invades dermis and other organs treatment is difficult

Answer 143

A

stage 0: confided to the epidermal region of skin (>99%)
Stage 1: localized disease only in skin, deeper into epidermis (~99%)
Stage 2: localized disease and gets deeper, touching the band of the basement membrane (98%)
Stage 3: into dermis and spread to lymph (64%)
Stage 4: spreads to organs because it enters the blood stream (23%)

Answer 144

A

early detection and treatment for melanoma before it metasizes, it can prevent death
Asymmetry
Border
Color
Diamete
Evolution

Answer 145

A

occurs where there is less sunlight at certain times of the year. symptoms include fatigue, hopelessness, and social withdrawals. it is said that vitamin D deficiency is a contributor to SAD as low levels of vitamin D have been found in people with SAD
box light for treatment

Answer 146

A

are injuries to skin and underlying tissues resulting from prolonged pressure on the skin. lesions are causes by lack of blood flow to areas that have been subjected to prolonged pressure, occurring over body prominences like tail bone, shoulder blade, and elbow. treatment: cleaning bandage, removal of damaged tissue, negative pressure (vacuum assisted closure of wound vac) helps promote blood flow. Prevention: quitting smoking, exercise, special mattresses, and proper nutrition
frequently repositioning the body

Answer 147

A

disturbing barrier exacerbates pathology
1. first degree burn: do not penetrate the basement membrane which is the extracellular matrix rich barrier between the epidermis and dermis (Pain, redness, and swelling)
2. second degree burn: pass and destroy the basement membrane reaching into the dermis (blistering)
3. third degree burn: pass and destroy the adipose barrier reaching areas deeper (sepsis- bacterial infection of blood, edema, organ failures, arrhythmia)

Answer 148

A

injections directly into blood via vein (25 degrees) fastest absorption
examples: diuretics and saline

Answer 149

A

injections into muscle which is quickly absorbed by surrounding blood vessels (90 degrees)
examples: steroids, antibiotics, and vaccines

Answer 150

A

injections into hypodermis, mostly fat and collagen which has little blood supply (45 degrees)
example: insulin and blood thinners

Answer 151

A

injections in the dermis with very low absorption rate and allows for longer effects of drugs
example: allergy testing

Answer 152

A

(osseous Tissue) is hard dense connective tissue that forms most of the adult skeleton, the support strucutre of the body

Answer 153

A

a semi rigid form of connective tissue, provides flexibility and smooth surfaces for movement in areas if the Skeleton where bones move

Answer 154

A

body system composed of bones, cartilage, ligaments and tendons which performs the following crticial functions for the human body

Answer 155

A

supports and protects the body:
a. bones and cartilage of your skeletal system compose the scaffold that supports th e rest of the body
b. cartilage covers the ends of bones (joints), allowing bones to move without physical abrasion
c. bones also protect internal organs from injury by covering or surrounding them
facilitates movement: bones facilitate movement by serving as points of attachment of your muscles connected through tendons, ligaments hold bones together
produces blood cells (hematopoiesis)
stores and release minerals and fats and energy: the bone matrix acts as a reservoir as a reservoir for a number of minerals important to the functioning of the body, especially calcium and phosphorous, which can be incorporated into bone tissue and released back into the bloodstream to maintain levels needed to support physiological processes. Bones serve as a site for fat storage

Answer 156

A

is the bone cell responsible for forming new bone and is found in the growing portions of bone, including the periosteum and endosteum. Does not divide. synthesize and secrete the collagen matrix and calcium matrix (active whenre there is high calcium)

Answer 157

A

the primary cell of mature bones and most common type of bone cell located in a lacuna and surrounded by bone tissue, they maintain the minerals concentration of the matrix via and secretion of enzymes, and lack mitotic activity. can communicate with each other and receive nutrients via long cytoplasmic processes that extend through canaliculi, channels within the bone matrix (formed from osteoblasts when their is high calcium)

Answer 158

A

undifferentiated with high mitotic phase activity and are the only cells that divide, immature osteogenic cells are found in the deep layers of the periosteum and the marrow, they differentiate and develop into osteoblasts (make new osteoblasts or osteoclasts

Answer 159

A

cells responsible for bone resorption of breakdown found on bone surfaces are multi-nucleated and originate from monocytes and macrophages, two types of white blood cells, not osteogenic cells. Continuously breaking down old bone while osteoblasts are forming new bone (active when their is low calcium levels)

Answer 160

A

broken bone, it will heal whether or not a physical resets it in its anatomical position

Answer 161

A

when a broken bone is manipulated and set into its natural position without surgery

Answer 162

A

required surgery to expose the fracture and reset the bone

Answer 163

A

traumatic: fall, auto accident
pathology: refers to when a disease causes a bone to break
periprosthetic: when a bone is broken under medical supervision such as surgery or at a location of an implant

Answer 164

A

closed fracture: simple, fracture in which the skin remains in tact
open fracture: compound, a fracture in which at least one end of the broken bone tears through the skin; carries a high risk of infection

Answer 165

A

bone breaks and both ends are no linger straight
bones breaks in one spot

Answer 166

A

Transverse- occurs straight across the long axis of the bone
spiral- bone segments are pulled apart as a result as a twisting motion
oblique- occurs at an angle that is not 99 degrees

Answer 167

A

comminuted- complete, several breaks result in many small pieces between two large segments (high falls)
green stick- incomplete, a partial fracture in which only one side of the bone is broken

Answer 168

A

Hematoma Formation- a hematoma is localized mass of blood confined within an organ or space caused by ruptured blood vessels. this pool of blood forms a fibrous clot to stop bleeding. this causes inadequate blood supply to bone tissue adjacent to the fracture and cell death. tissue around the bone becomes inflamed and swollen
Callus formation- a callus is a mass of primitive bone tissue around a fracture site. as the clot dissolves, macrophages clean up debris and osteoclasts break down dead bone tissue (this clear the way for repair). fibroblasts produce a dense network of collagen fibers and chondrocytes produce cartilage on this newly formed network of fibers (soft scaffold for the formation of new bone tissue)
callus ossification- cartilage is replaced by woven spongy bone. the porous woven bone allows blood vessels to regrow through the injury site. these new vessels nourish osteoblasts to begin to produce bone. Eventually, all the fibers and cartilage are replaced by woven spongy bone. At this time the bone is stable but not completely healed
bone remodeling- gaps in woven bone are filled to form compact bone along the superficial surface by osteoblasts. woven bone of the internal callus and dead bone tissue is cleared away by osteoclasts. this process can take up a year to complete with only a slight thickening of adjacent bon

Answer 169

A

a condition characterized by abnormally low levels of calcium
parathyroid glands released PTH which causes osteoclasts to break down bone releasing calcium, calcium is reabsorbed from urine by kidneys and calcium absorption in the small intestine increase via vitamin D synthesis which all increases the calcium level in the blood

Answer 170

A

condition characterized by abnormally high levels of calcium
thyroid gland releases calcitonin which deactivates osteoclasts and decreases calcium reabsorption in the kidneys to lower the levels of calcium in the blood

Answer 171

A

movement of the body- most muscles are attached to bones and allow for major body movements
maintenance of posture- skeletal muscles constantly maintain muscle tone to keep us sitting or standing
respiration- contraction of diaphragm, a skeletal muscle contract, heat is given off as a by product
production of body heat- when skeletal muscles contract, heat is given off as a by product
communication- speaking, writing, typing, and nonverbal communication all involve muscles
construction of organs and vessels- smooth muscles within walls of internal organs cause those structures to change shape; this structural change can propel food and water during digestion, removal of material from organs during urination and regulates blood flow
contraction of heat- cardiac muscles contract to cause heart to beat and propel blood to all parts of the body

Answer 172

A

muscle cells that can organized into fibers

Answer 173

A

if the place is a bone that remains immobile for an action

Answer 174

A

attachment if the place is on the bone that moves during the action

Answer 175

A

contractility- the ability for muscles to generate force when shortened or contract allows muscle tissue on its attachment points and shorten with force
excitability- is the capacity of a muscle to respond to neuronal stimulation, plasma membrane change their electrical state and send an electrical wave along the membrane
extensibility- means muscles can stretch beyond its normal resting length and still contracts; stretch and extend
elasticity- the ability of muscle to spring back to its original resting length after it has been stretched or shortened; it can coil back to orignal length due to elastic fibers

Answer 176

A

external layer, separates muscle from surrounding tissue, allowing bone to make movement independently

Answer 177

A

middle layer, surrounded muscle fiber bundles (fascicles), contain blood vessels and nerves

Answer 178

A

individual bundles of organized muscle fibers found inside each muscle

Answer 179

A

surrounds individual muscle fibers (cells) and capillaries; collagen and reticular fibers

Answer 180

A

organism: human
organ system: muscular system
organs: skeletal muscle
tissue: muscle fascicles
cells- muscle fiber
protein- actin/myosin

Answer 181

A

the plasma membrane of muscle fibers

Answer 182

A

the cytoplasm of muscle fibers

Answer 183

A

the specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum which stores and releases and retrieves calcium ions

Answer 184

A

macromolecules, repeating patterns of actin and myosin, 2 proteins that generate contractions

Answer 185

A

the primary functional unit of skeletal muscle that is highly organized of contractile myosin filaments alongside other proteins

Answer 186

A

has troponin-tropomyosin complex, form strands thinner than myosin. G actin is globular actin which looks like a ball and forms a F actin, filament actin

Answer 187

A

strands with heads that grab on to the actin and pulls it to contract the muscle

Answer 188

A

where the actin myofilaments are anchored; when muscle contracts the z line shortens

Answer 189

A

specialized nerve cells responsible for stimulating muscle contraction these neurons originate int he brain and spinal cord and extend to skeletal muscles. that innervate skeletal muscle are called somatic neurons and they are apart of the somatic nervous system

Answer 190

A

have cell bodies located in central nervous systems (ventral spinal cord) and its axons directly onto target muscles

Answer 191

A

synapse that connects a motor neuron and muscle

Answer 192

A

the difference in electrical potential across the plasma membrane when the cell is at rest or in relaxation. muscle fibers are polarized by the uneven distribution of ions caused by the sodium and potassium pump. the resting membrane potential of the cell membrane is -85 mV
the voltage gated sodium channels are fast acting depolarization
the voltage gated potassium channel are slow repolarization

Answer 193

A

when an action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal of a motor neuron, it causes voltage gates calcium ion channels in the membrane to open, as a result calcium diffuses into axon terminal
once inside the motor neuron, the calcium causes a few synaptic vesicles to migrate to the presynaptic terminal, where they fuse with the membrane
the acetylcholine molecules are released from the synaptic vesicles
the acetylcholine molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to open ligand gated sodium channels in the motor end plate, causing them to enter
sodium ions rush in the muscle fiber that exceeds threshold; this produces an action potential
acetylcholine eventually detached from ligand gated sodium channels, which closes the channel. the excess acetylcholine is broken down by an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase

Answer 194

A

excitation-contraction coupling begins at the neuromuscular junction with the production of an action potential in the sarcolemma. the action potential is propagated along the entire sarcolemma of the muscle fiber and into the T tubules which wrap around sarcomeres and carries action potentials into the interior of the muscle fiber
interiorly the action potential cause voltage gated calcium channels to open, calcium rapidly diffuse and into the sarcoplasma thus surrounding myofibrils
calcium binds to the troponin molecules of the action filaments which causes the tropomyosin to move thus exposing active sites in the actin filament
the myosin heads then bind to the exposed active site on G actin to form cross bridges. muscle contracts when cross bridges move, thus myosin pulling the actin to shorten the z line

Answer 195

A

for skeletal muscle fiber to contract, its membrane must be excited before firing an action potential

Answer 196

A

at rest, polarized, voltage gate channels are closed.
depolarization begins due to the opening of the sodium voltage gated channels that further depolarizes the membrane to hit the threshold and start and action potential
closing of the sodium channel and opening of the potassium voltage gated channels to repolarize the cell barrier (K+ out)
channels close and hyper-polarization occurs where inter membrane is more negative but then due to the sodium potassium pump it will even out

Answer 197

A

occurs when ACH is no longer released at the neuromuscular junction and require energy for the re uptake of ACH. the cessation of action potentials along the sarcolemma as well as the repolarization of the sarcolemma to the resting membrane potential stops calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which re-establishes the troponin and tropomyosin complex to its original position that blocks active site on actin molecule. as a consequence, cross bridges cannot be formed and the muscle relaxes

Answer 198

A

ATP is required for muscle contraction and relaxation (sodium potassium pump, detachment of Myosin head, re uptake of calcium ions and ACH)

Answer 199

A

exposure of active site: the myosin head stores energy from ATP breakdown that occurred in previous cycle. the myosin will remain in the high energy position until the muscle fiber is stimulated by neuron
cross bridge formation: once calcium binds to troponin and active sites on the G actin are exposed, the myosin head quickly bind to them
power stroke- rapid movement at the hinged region of myosin
cross bridge release- binding to atop to the myosin head causes it to detach from G actin
hydrolysis of ATP- the myosin head breaks down ATP into ADP and phosphate, which remains attached to the myosin head
recovery stroke- the release energy returns myosin head to its high energy position the myosin filaments can bind further down actin to another side thus pulling it inwards to shorten the sarcomere

Answer 200

A

refer to the loss of the ability to understand or express speech, caused by brain damage

Answer 201

A

is a language disorder that makes it hard for you to understand words and communicate; this disorder is caused by damage to the part of the brain that contain language. it leads to a loss of language ability and can be very frustrating (temporal)

Answer 202

A

is a non-fluent aphasia in which the output of spontaneous speech is markedly diminished and there is a loss of normal grammatical structure. specifically, small linking words, conjunctions and the use of prepositions are lost (frontal)

Answer 203

A

directly relate brain dysfunction to anatomical regions, strokes being a common cause of brain lesions and subsequent dysfunction

Answer 204

A

occurs when a blood clot blocks the blood flow in an artery within the brain; blocked artery

Answer 205

A

stroke occurs when a blood vessel bursts within the brain due to increase pressure

Answer 206

A

measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow, this technique relies on the fact that cerebral blood flow and neuronal activation are coupled when an area of the brain is in use, blood flow to the region also increases

Answer 207

A

are the hills

Answer 208

A

are the valleys

Answer 209

A

direct info to CNS

Answer 210

A

direct info away from CNS

Answer 211

A

in the brain and spinal cord is made up neuronal bodies; conducts processes and sends information to various parts (40%) fully develops once a person turns 20

Answer 212

A

is composed of nerve fibers and their insulate myelin wrapping; interprets sensory information from various parts (60%)

Answer 213

A

motor control (premotor cortex), problem solving (prefrontal area) and speech production (Broca’s area)

Answer 214

A

touch perception (somatosensory cortex) and body orientation and sensory discrimination

Answer 215

A

sight (visual cortex) and visual reception and interpretation

Answer 216

A

auditory processing (hearing), language comprehension (Wernike’s area), memory/information retrieval

Answer 217

A

involuntary response

Answer 218

A

balance and coordination

Answer 219

A

supports the neuron; non electrogenic but crucial for central nervous system functions

Answer 220

A

star shaped, cover brain surface and non synaptic regions of neurons; form supportive framework in CNS and nourish neurons and produce growth factors; blood brain barrier and replaces damaged tissue

Answer 221

A

in CNS that forms myelin in brain and spinal cord; single oligo can myelinate multiple axons

Answer 222

A

phagocytize and destroys microorganisms, foreign matter and dead nervous tissue

Answer 223

A

line cavities of brain and spinal cord; secrete and circulate cerebrospinal fluid

Answer 224

A

insulates axons with myelin in PNS; single schwann cell myelinates one segment of an axon

Answer 225

A

sensation: the nervous system receives information about the environment around us via sensory afferents
motor: the nervous system instructs muscles to move via motor efferents
integration: the brain processes and integrates information and forms higher cognitive functions such as memories, learning and emotional response
body control- the autonomic nervous system and enteric nervous system are responsible for involuntary control of the body and digestive system

Answer 226

A

composed of brain and spinal cord; it receives sensory signals, integrates them and send the information to the body

Answer 227

A

is responsible for detecting stimuli in and around the body and sending to CNS; it also relays messages form the CNS to the body

Answer 228

A

connect to skeletal muscles

Answer 229

A

connect to smooth muscles, glands, organs, involuntary movement like heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal

Answer 230

A

rest and digest

Answer 231

A

fight or flight

Answer 232

A

excitability- cells respond to environmental changes, neuronal exhibit this property to the highest degree
conductibility- neurons respond to stimuli by processing and producing electrical signals that are quickly conducted to another cell at distant locations
secretion- when signal reaches the end of a nerve fiber, the neuron secretes neurotransmitters that crosses the gap and stimulates the next cell

Answer 233

A

specialized region where axon emerges from the soma where depolarization occurs due its density of voltage gated Na+ and K+ channels

Answer 234

A

a dramatic change produce by voltage gated channels along the plasma membrane

Answer 235

A

if stimulus depolarizes the neuron to threshold, the neuron fires at is maximum voltage; if the threshold is not met then the neuron will not fire at all

Answer 236

A

the signal does not get weaker with distance, the last action potential is just as strong as the first action potential

Answer 237

A

if a neuron reaches threshold the action potential goes to completion

Answer 238

A

two gates provide directionality of the action potential:
activation gate- open at threshold
inactivation gate- closes after an action potential and releases after 1-2 milliseconds (refractory period)

Answer 239

A

after an action potential is generated at a given point on the plasma membrane that are becomes less sensitive to further stimulation. without the refractory period the action potential would move backwards and forwards

Answer 240

A

further depolarization can not occur as long as the inactivation gates are closed

Answer 241

A

is a period of time where a very strong stimulus is needed to initiate an action potential during hyper polarization

Answer 242

A

connection where two or more bones or cartilage come together

Answer 243

A

according to the major connective tissue that hold bones together
1. fibrous- skull bones
2. cartilaginous- vertebrae
3. synovial- hip

Answer 244

A

synarthroses- non moveable joints (fibrous joints)
amphiarthroses- slightly moveable joints (cartilaginous joints)
diarthroses- are freely moveable joints (synovial joints)

Answer 245

A

are the connections between two bones held together by fibrous tissue. Have little to no movement.
examples: sutures and radius and ulna bones

Answer 246

A

hold two bones together by a pad of cartilage. they have little to no movement and are subdivided on the basis of the types of cartilage

Answer 247

A

is the strongest type of cartilage and forms immovable joints

Answer 248

A

is weaker and contains fewer collagen fibers, allowing more movement
example: sternal cartilage is composed of hyaline cartilage and connects ribs to sternum

Answer 249

A

contain synovial fluid and allows for considerable movement between bones. they are found primarily in the appendicular skeleton
Synovial joints contain a membrane lined and fluid filled cavity separating the bones.

Answer 250

A

is a thick liquid located between your joints. the fluid cushions the ends of bones and reduces friction when you move your joints

Answer 251

A

maintaining homeostasis without conscious thought; it regulates involuntary physiologic processes including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal by altering activity of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle glands, and tissues during various activities.
A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that controls in voluntary movement and is subdivided into 3 categories

Answer 252

A

fight or flight
examples: pupils dilate, airways dilate, increased heart rate, inhibition function of intestines, conversion of stored glycogen to glucose

Answer 253

A

rest and digest
examples: pupils constrict, decreased heart rate, airways constrict, stimulate saliva production, stimulate digestive enzyme, contraction of bladder, increased blood flow to genitals

Answer 254

A

homeostasis of gastrointestinal tract contains mesh-like system of neurons and glia that governs the function of the gastrointestinal tract. 600 million neurons releasing a multitude of neurotransmitters to facilitate the motor sensory absorptive and secretory functions of the gastrointestinal tract. the enteric system is capable of operating independently of the brain and spinal cord. Complex network of neuron cell bodies and axons within the wall of the digestive tract

Answer 255

A

are clusters of neuronal cell bodies in PNS. the sympathetic and parasympathetic division differ anatomically in the location of their pre-ganglionic neurons and their autonomic ganglia in PNS. ANS has 2 neurons in series extending between the CNS, PND, and innervates organs

Answer 256

A

first neuron, its cell body is located in the CNS (brain stem or lateral horn of spinal cord) and its axons extend to an autonomic ganglion outside the CNS

Answer 257

A

second neuron, axons extend and synapse with target tissue

Answer 258

A

-sympathetic division pre-ganglionic neurons are in the lateral horns of the spinal cord gray matter
-Thoracolumbar System: connection emerging from the thoracic and upper lumbar spinal cord (T1->L2)
-many post ganglionic neurons (divergent)
-the axons of the pre-ganglionic exit through the ventral root of spinal nerves
-first neuron axon travels short distance before they exit the nerve to sympathetic ganglia (paravertebral ganglia) are located alongside the vertebral column
-some CNS axon synapse to ganglion on the same level while some CNS axon synapse superior or inferior
-sympathetic post-ganglionic neuron release norepinephrine

Answer 259

A

vital to the stress response (secretion of cortisol, adrenaline, and adolesterone) that is directly connected to the CNS via splanchnic nerves

Answer 260

A

-cell bodies of parasympathetic pre-ganglionic neurons are located either in brainstem or within lateral horns of the sacral cord (S2->s4) gray matter
-pre-ganglionic axons exit the CNS in nerves and synapse into post-ganglionic neurons located in the terminal ganglia
- 1st neurons axon extends a longer distance
-terminal ganglia are located in or near target tissues (2nd neuron’s axon only goes short distance)
-discreet ganglia
-few post-ganglionic neurons (less divergence)
- parasympathetic post-ganglionic neuron releases acetylcholine

Answer 261

A

an intricate and powerful neuroendocrine mechanism that mediates the effectors of stressors by regulating numerous physiological processes

Answer 262

A

the primary stress hormone, increases sugars (glucose) in the bloodstream, enhances your brain’s use of glucose and increases the available of substances that repair tissues; it also curbs functions that would be nonessential or harmful in fight or flight situation

Answer 263

A

Pre-ganglionic: acetylcholine-> nicotinic receptor

post-ganglionic: acetylcholine-> muscarinic receptor (MAchR)

-GPCR subtype depends on receptor composition
-there are five subtypes of muscarinic receptors (M1-M5) which all are sensitive to ACH but vary by their intracellular response
-final effects on effector organs can be stimulating or inhibitory depending on specific receptors on effect organ
-the neurochemistry of the parasympathetic system is based on the cholinergic system. ACH targets effectors by binding to the NAchRs and MAchRs

Answer 264

A

Pre-ganglionic: acetylcholine-> nicotinic receptor

post-ganglion: Norepinephrine-> alpha or beta adrenergic receptor
or
acetylcholine-> muscarinic receptor (associated with sweat glands and blood vessels)

-Post-ganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system release norepinephrine onto target organs
-norepinephrine and epinephrine are catecholamine (hormones produced by adrenal glands)
-there are two types of adrenergic receptors: alpha and beta which are all sensitive to catecholamines
-the neurochemistry of the sympathetic nervous system is based on the adrenergic system

Answer 265

A

ligand-receptor paris in autonomic nervous system acetylcholine is released by. post-ganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic nervous system ACH then binds to Muscarinc ACH receptors, they are named this due to receptors being sensitive to muscarine, a toxin derived from mushrooms. belong to a specific type of metabotropic receptor called G protein couple receptors

Answer 266

A

form the larger family of cell-surface receptors; they mediate most responses to signals from the external world as well as signals from other cells, including hormones and neurotransmitters (our senses, sight, smell, taste depend on them)

Answer 267

A

a chemical that the body produces to interact with those receptors

Answer 268

A

a chemical introduces to the system from the outside; may be a natural origin such as a plant extract, or they may be synthetically produced in a pharmaceutical laboratory

Answer 269

A

enhance the adrenergic signaling
examples: a common sympathomimetic drug is phenylephrine, a common component of decongestants it can also be used to dilate the pupil and to raise blood pressure. Phenylephrine is an alpha 1 adrenergic agonist, meaning it binds to specific adrenergic receptor, stimulating a response

Answer 270

A

inhibit adrenergic signaling
examples: a common sympatholytic drug is beta blockers often used to treat cardiovascular disease. Metoprolol as a beta 1 adrenergic antagonist meaning it blocks sympathetic input, thus lowing blood pressure

Answer 271

A

enhance the cholinergic signaling
example: a common parasympathomimetic drug is pilocarpine commonly used to treat disorders of the eye. Pilocarpine as muscarinic agonist, that stimulates MAchRs causing the pupil to contract.

Answer 272

A

inhibit cholinergic signaling
examples: a common anticholinergic drug include atropine (given during surgery to reduce the production of saliva and can be used in emergency to treat slow heart beat) and scopolamine (used to prevent nausea and vomiting caused by motion sicknesses)

Answer 273

A

is a state of reduced mental and physical activity, in which consciousness is altered and sensory activity is inhibited to a certain extent

Answer 274

A

cycles of light and dark set out body’s internal clock

Answer 275

A

is a complex cellular mechanism that sustain self-perpetuating oscillations with 24 hour period and is in sync with external environment cues such as light, temperature, food, and physical setting

Answer 276

A

is released by pineal gland 1-3 hours after transition from light to dark (this signaling pathway primes sleep); secretions begins 9pm
-as the retinal axons cross the optic chasm, they pass neurons of the suprachiasmatic nucleus. during darkness, cells of the suprachiasmatic nucleus are activated which leads to pineal gland activation and release of melatonin. Darkness is entering suprachiasmatic in hypothalamus and goes down chain ganglion to superior ganglia and ascends back to the midbrain to stimulate the pineal gland to produce or secrete GABA (inhibitor) these two are the main drivers of sleep.

Answer 277

A

begins to be released from the adrenal cortex 2-3 hours before waking up (this signaling pathway primes wakefulness); secretion begin at 6 am
-growth hormone is released in beginning of sleep, recovery every night

Answer 278

A

NREM 1: brief stage where muscles relax, heartbeat, and breathing slow down; hypnotic hallucinations happens here (tetris effect), you are still sensitive to outside factors; common to have feeling of falling and easy to wake up
NREM 2: heartbeat and breathing slow down further and body temperature drops, last 25 minutes; harder to wake up than NREM 1, sleep spindles present in EEG and contribute to sleep based memory consolidation (long term formation memories)
NREM 3&4: deepest sleep, called slow wave (delta sleep); very important period of relearning, memory, immune functions, tissue repair and growth; this is when sleep walking occurs. Stage 3 is mostly slow waves while stage 4 is all slow waves
REM (rapid Eye movement): is when dreams happen, the body is limp but eye movement is rapid, the brain is very active during this stage

Answer 279

A

brain is very active but body is very inactive

Answer 280

A

is a test that detects abnormalities in your brain waves or in the electrical activity of your brain

Answer 281

A

high frequency with reasonable amplitude and chaotic, very little space between

Answer 282

A

theta waves are slower with wider space mixed but mostly high frequency waves ( a little bit of calmness)

Answer 283

A

characterized by sleep spindles (high frequency) and K complex which is a large biphasic wave that stands out (high amplitude)

Answer 284

A

delta; slower waves or deep sleep characterized by low frequency and high amplitude delta waves ( look like k complex bu there are many of them)

Answer 285

A

most closely resembles wakefulness

Answer 286

A

protection against the consequences of shift work. is the behavioral and environmental practice developed in the late 1970s as a method to help people with mild to moderate insomnia

Answer 287

A

are a succession of images, ideas, emotions and sensation that usually occur involuntary in the mind during certain stages of sleep

Answer 288

A

random neuro activity created dreams, suggests that dreams are caused by the physiological process of the brain, During REM sleep the brain is incredibly active and this is when we dream. this activation of circuits (emotional, sensations, memories become active) the brain synthesis and interprets this internal activity and attempts to create meaning from these signals

Answer 289

A

first hand of sleep, restorative functions of sleep: dominated by slow wave sleep, growth hormone secretion, cellular repair and growth mechanisms are active, glia aid in clearing debris and stabilizing memories (consolidation), anabolic processes (brain recovers from every day) past events (the first 4 hours of sleep)

Answer 290

A

second half of sleep, future oriented cognitive processes: diamond by REM sleep (brain prepares for the next day), rise in cortisol. future events last four hours of sleep, intense while dreaming

Answer 291

A

a type of dream in which the dreamer becomes aware that they are dreaming while dreaming

Answer 292

A

surgical operation in which a failure or damaged organ inhuman body is removed and replaced with a functional one. the donated organ may be from a deceased donor, a living donor or an animal
worldwide, kidneys are the most common transported organ, followed by the liver and then the heart

Answer 293

A

common to test hand coordination to examine success of hands transplant

Answer 294

A

autograft- graft in the same person from one part of the body to the other area like skin graft, hair transplantation and bone
isograft- between the identical twins because they share 100% genetic information
allograft- this is between different members of the same species like kidney heart liver and lung transplant
xenograft- between two different species like monkey to man

Answer 295

A

blood type
HLA match
Serum Crossing matching

Answer 296

A

the rules for blood type in transplantation are the same as they are for blood transfusion. some blood types can give to others and some may not. Blood type A, B, AB, and O
-blood type A has antigen A thus do not have antigen B; they have antibodies of anti B
-blood type B has antigen B thus do not have antigen A; they have antibodies against A
-blood type AB has antigen A and B; no antibodies
-blood type O has no antigens, contains antibodies of A and B (universal donor)

Answer 297

A

tissue matching. antigens are proteins on the cell in the body, out of over 100 different antigens that have been verified, there are six that have been shown to the the most important in organ transplantation.

Answer 298

A

plasma cross matching is crucial trail for transplantation. the blood is centrifuged and the heavy material (red blood cells) are at the bottom 45%, middle layer is the Buffy coat (white blood cells and platelets) 1%, and the top of the vial is the plasma (salts and minerals and water) 55%. the cross match test is a very important part of the living donor work up and is repeated again just before the transplant surgery
-blood from the donor and recipient are mixed. if the recipient’s cells attack and kill the donor cells, the cross match is considered positive meaning the recipient has antibodies against the donors cells, if the cross match is negative the pair is considered to be compatible

Answer 299

A

is a nonprofit organization that contracts with the federal government’s department of health and human services to serve as the nation’s organ transplant system. the organization policies and computerized network match donated organs transplant candidates in order to save as many lives as possible while providing recipients with the best chance for long term survival.

Answer 300

A

is calculated as the difference between life expectancy with transplantation and life expectancy without transplantation. hospitals that carry out organ transplants rank patients waiting for organs on a variety of criteria aimed to prioritize those with the greatest survival benefit. meaning likeliness to live longer post transplant

Answer 301

A

stop your immune system from damaging healthy cells and tissue. people with organ transplants and stem cell transplants take these medicines to prevent transplant rejections. Immunosupressents are powerful drugs that require immunosuppresant drugs have reduced organ rejection

Answer 302

A

pharmacological therapy administered during cardiac surgery to intentionally and temporarily arrest the hear. the main active ingredient in cardioplegia is potassium citrate. bathing the heart a compound high in K+ increases extracellular potassium contractions and disrupts the generation of action potentials and contractions. additionally, ice cold cardioplegia is used which further slows down the heart and reduces cellular metabolism and placing the organ in resting state

Answer 303

A

machine that clamps off veins and arteries and recirculates the blood into the machine which adds oxygen to the blood and puts it back into the body. Cardiopulmonary bypass machine is a machine that temporarily takes over the function of the heart and lungs during surgery, maintains the circulation of blood and oxygen to the body

Answer 304

A

can be traced back to early 1990s, pigs and non human primates have very similar heart and kidney anatomy and physically compared to humans (tissue from another species0. recipients dies hours after surgery from rejection not malfunction

Answer 305

A

simple yet powerful tool for gene editing; allows researchers to easily alter DNA sequences and modify gene function. DNA editing technique. scientists modified 10 genes in creating this pig

Answer 306

A

is a chronic relapsing disorder characterized by compulsive reward seeking despite adverse consequences. this is considered a brain disorder or disease because it involves functional changes to brain circuits involved in reward, stress and self control
-when an individual engages in a behavior that is associated with pleasure such as using drugs or alcohol, the brain releases a flood of neurotransmitters, specifically dopamine, in the reward center of the brain this leads to feelings of pleasure and euphoria
-repeated exposure to the drugs or alcohol over time leads to changes in the brain’s reward system, specifically in the strucutre and function of certain areas such as the central striatum, the prefrontal cortex (responsible for higher level functioning and higher level thinking, not fully myleineted until 30 and the amygdala

Answer 307

A

responsible for desire, this is why we want to use it

Answer 308

A

responsible for reward and pleasure, why we like the substance

Answer 309

A

is a type of behavior or mental act engaged in to reduce anxiety or distress, typically the individual feels driven or compelled to perform a dreadful event or situation. such compulsion of not providing pleasure or gratification, although the individual may experience some temporary relief from engaging in them

Answer 310

A

development of withdrawal symptoms, which can be relieved by taking more of the substance. needing more of the substance to get the effect you want. ravings and urges to use this substances

Answer 311

A

taking the substance in larger amounts for longer than you are meant to. wanting to cut down or stop using the substance but not managing to. spending a lot of time getting, using, or recovering from use of the substances

Answer 312

A

not managing to do what you should at work, home, or school because of substance use. continue to use even when it causes problems in relationships. giving up important social, occupational or recreational activities because of substance use

Answer 313

A

using substances again and again even when it puts you in danger. continuing to use, even when you know you have physical and psychological problem that could have been caused or made worse by the substance

Answer 314

A

2 to three symptoms indicate a mild substance use disorder

Answer 315

A

four or 5 symptoms indicate a moderate substance use disorder

Answer 316

A

six or more indicate a severe substance use disorder

Answer 317

A

refers to the cumulative build up of chronic stress and life event that can drive a person to use

Answer 318

A

cycles of drug intoxication and early symptoms of withdrawal. increasing allosteric load of mu-modulated network opposing primary drug affects

Answer 319

A

symptoms opposite to the acute actions of the opioid and include anxiety, panic attacks and dysphoria. Drug craving is reflective of a learned association between the relief or withdrawal symptoms and opine drug taking

Answer 320

A

triggered by craving induces by memory of the relief of anxiety and dysphoria can be achieves by opioids

Answer 321

A

is composed resembling opium, having physiological effects of addictive properties (in lab). Narcotic drugs that can act on the opioid receptors in the brain active ingredients are chemically synthesized

Answer 322

A

compound derived from or related to opium poppy plant; subset of opioids derived from plant materials; alkaloids derived from the opium poppy

Answer 323

A

-morphine: lethal does is a pea size amount
-heroin: two times more potent than morphine
-fentanyl- 100 more potent than morphine
-sufentanil- 500 times more potent
-carfentamnil- 10,000 times more potent

Answer 324

A

highly expressed in hindbrain and spinal cord and cerebellum
activation producing euphoria

Answer 325

A

highly expresses in cortex of the brain
reduces anxiety and depression

Answer 326

A

in hind brain

Answer 327

A

Cognitive:
short term- euphoria drowsiness/lethargic, decreased working memory
long term- addiction/tolerance/dependence, depression diminished executive function
pain sensitivity:
short term- decreased pain sensitivity
long term- increased pain sensitivity (hyperalgesia)
gastrointestinal:
short term- nausea and constipation
long term- nausea and constipation, bloating and abdominal distension
cardio respiratory
short term- reduced breathing and heart rate
longer term- increased risk of cardiovascular events (heart attack, heart failure, collapse of blood vessels) and respiratory disease
other common side effects:
short term- severe itching and warm flushed skin
long term- increased risk of infection, increase in HPA axis and sexual dysfunction

Answer 328

A

aka opioid overdose is a combination of decreased respiratory drive, level of consciousness, obstructed passages due to loss of supraglottic tone (you have muscle in your throat that helps bring air to your lung, physical obstruction in breathing) closed over your trachea so no food of drinks can go down your breathing tube, and sleepiness

Answer 329

A

is a medicine is rapidly reverses an opioid overdoes because it is an opioid antagonist that attaches to opioid receptors and reverse and block the effects of other opioids. it kicks off opioid from the receptors and displaces them and then blocks it very fast

Answer 330

A

full agonist; generate effect

Answer 331

A

partial agonist; generates limited effect

Answer 332

A

antagonist; blocks effect

Answer 333

A

required close medical supervision at a certified facility
the powerful medication used may have undesirable side effects
the medications provide the potential for misue or abuse
there is the risk of trading on addiction for another

Answer 334

A

(prosopagnosia) inner surface of the temporal lobe called fusiform gyrus (face recognition of the brain) if it is damaged then you can not recognize people’s faces, but you can regonize their voice

Answer 335

A

(imposter) looks at his mother and says it looks like his mother but it is not and thus she is an imposter. Freudian view, little boy has a strong sexual attraction to his mother and as you grow up the cortex develops and the sexual arousal does go away. if brain is damaged then it stops the cortex from developing and they can have sexual attraction to their mother and thus do not understand why they have sexual attraction to their mother so they conclude the women is not his mother and thus is an imposter. through eyeballs, 30 areas concerned with vision, fusiform gyrus where your perceive faces. the message cascades to amygdala which gages the emotional significance of what you are looking at. if the amygdala is excited then your heart will start beating faster and increased sweating and aroused because it goes through the autonomic nervous system. Fusiform is intact and can recognize mother but since the wire is cut to the amygdala then they do not gain a warm feeling around their mother, thus they think their acutal mom is an imposter. hearing center to the emotional center which is not cut by the accident, thus the guys can know it is his mother talking over the phone but when seeing her he thinks she is an imposter

Answer 336

A

amputated limb the person vividly feels their lost limb, can get phantom limb anywhere even inside the body like phantom uterus and cramps. Half of the people agreed they can move the phantom limb, about half of the phantom limb is paralyzed in a fixed position and painful in a fist., the original arm was paralyzed, the nerve was severed and cut. they had an actual arm and the nerve supplying the arm has been cut and actual arm was in a sling for several months and the pain gets carried to the phantom limb. the brain sends commands to the arm to move but the visual representation is no. learned paralysis-brain learns that the command is to move paralyzed arm and this carries over to the phantom limb. clenching spasm of the phantom arm, brachial avulsion

Answer 337

A

mirror in a box and the patient puts his phantom left arm on the left side of the mirror and his right hand on the right side of the mirror. he looks at the phantom and it is there because of the mirror and he moves his real fingers and thinks his phantom limb is moving because of the mirror thus releasing his pain in his phantom limb. looking at the reflection of the phantom gives a vivid sensory which is important in paralyzed limb

Answer 338

A

cross wiring the modality. when you see numbers they see colors; they can hear colors; taste in mouth when listening to mouth. overtime numbers are different colors. tone show colors. mingling of the senses. runs in families (heredity base) and 8 times more common in artists and novelists and creative people. color area and number are are found together in the brain in the fusiform gyrus that is cross wired. gene expressed everywhere in the brain; they have the ability to metaphorically think and thus be more creative

Answer 339

A

differs shapes for different letters, kiki and bouba cross modally sinister abstraction which happens in the fusiform of the brain and if damaged then they wont understand metaphors

Answer 340

A

Symptoms: wheezing, coughing, shortness of breath
treatments: beta-agonists, inhales nad systemic glucocorticoids
risk factors: dust, allergens, mold
Asthma disrupts the ability of respiratory system to efficiently exchange gases; inability to maintain oxygenation or remove carbon dioxide
Bronchial tree distributes air throughout the lines to alveolar sacs. Bronchi contain smooth muscle and elastic fibers for wall integrity; the smooth muscle contraction/relaxation influences by inflammatory mediators, bronchoconstriction, bronchodilators
Bronchi and Bronchiole are lined with pseduostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. mast cells and lymphocytes enter lung tissue. the chronic inflammation thickens airway walls, making them hyper responsive. Fibrosis of the airway walls
Dendrite cells- phagocytosis
plasma cells- release Ig E antibody
Mast cells- release histamines and other inflammatory mediators
T lymphocytes- release cytokines that drive inflammation

Answer 341

A

A serious lung disease that affects premature or low birth weight babies. It occurs when a baby’s lungs are damaged and cannot support breathing, often due to being born too early. The infant’s lungs become irritated and do not develop normally
Symptoms: breathing that is fast, shortness of breath, pauses in breathing, nostrils flare while breathing, guncting while breathing, wheezing, skin pulling in between the rbs or collar bones
Causes: lung immaturity, oxidative stress, fibrosis, and inflammation or injury
Risk factors: premature birth, low birth weight, prolonged mechanical venilation, high oxygen therapy, prenantal inflammation or infection, postnatal infections, patent ductus arterious, male gender and maternal smoking or poor prenatal care

Answer 342

A

Alcohol associated: steatosis (build up of fat in an organ), cirrhosis (severe scarring of the liver which will try to repair itself), and liver fibrosis (liver develops an abnormal amount of scar tissue
Commonly no symptoms but sometimes tiredness, pain in upper right side of abdome, swelling of legs, easy bruising or bleeding
MASLD (weight loss), Livogen Plus (helps with poor absorption of food), liver transplant, ACE inhibitors immunosuppressive therapy
Inhertied disorders: alagille syndrome (affect multiple organ sysmtes due to bile ducts being blocked) and wilson disease (a build up of copper in the body)
Mutation in the JAG 1 gene for 90% of cases-> some mutations are on the NOTCH 2 gene (no cure)
Mutation to the ATP7B gene which codes for the proten that transports copper into bile
Non-alcholic fatty liver disease: simple fatty liver (build up of fat in the liver with little to no inflammation or cell damage) and nonalcholic steatohepatitis (build up of fat in the liver with inflammation and cell damage)

Answer 343

A

Suicide is defined as a self-infliced injury with the deliberate intent of death as a result
Molecular: altered signaling pathways (BDNF-TrkB pathways and VEGF-Flk1 pathway) and alterations in signal transduction (proteins like cAMP,MAPK and others are altered)
Cellular: increase in microglial activity and necroptosis
Tissue: hippocampal atrophy reduces grey matter in the hippocampus, increased connectivity between amygdala and other parts of the brain (prefrontal cortex, hippocampus)
Organ: dysregulation of the HPA axis in the brain and increased cortisol levels inthe brain
Organ system: inflammatory markers int eh immune system are linked to suicide, altered regualtion of the autonomic nervous sytem (sympathetic) is linked to suicuda ideation
Post traumatic stress disroder is a mental health condition that devlops after the person goes through a scary, life threatening event and afterwords has recurring memories, trouble sleeping, or otherwise change in lifestyle
Molecular: disrupted glucocorticoid signaling, higher cortisol levels, disrupted nerve signaling loops for fear
Cellular: dysregulation of hematopoietic stem cells, increased levels of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
Tissue: smaller hippocampus, hyperactive prefrontal cortex, underactive amygdala
Organ: an imbalnce of catecholamine neurotransmitters in the brain and dysregulation of the HPA axis int he brain
Organ system: increase in pro-inflammatory cytokine in the immune system, poor cardiac health and high risk for cardiac morbidity, disproportionate amounts of catecholamines and glucocorticoids released from the endocrine system

Answer 344

A

Alpha-1 antitrypsin (AAT), which is the chemical level and its a protein that protects the lungs from damage and it it is damaged or deficient it can lead to an imbalance between proteases and antiproteases
At the cellular level, AAT deficiency or dysfunction causes damage primarily through uncontrolled neutrophil elastase activity which leads to the epithelial cells being exposed to irritans which causes the inflammatory response and ultimately leads to the destruction of this level
The cell damage affects the tissue in the lungs known as lung parenchyma and its responsible for gas exchange and is made up of millions of alveoli, also known as air sacs and these are tiny air pockets where oxygen exchange occurs and if they are destroyed it can result in airway obstruction due to inflammation
This can cause impairment to the breathing function of the lung because the damaged tissue cannot expand properly, trapping the air and prevneting full oxygen intake. And a damaged lung can affect the respiratory system and lead to symptoms like shortness of breath, coughing, and difficulty
All of these stages ultimeatly lead to the organism presenting with COPD. the prognosis fo these individuals depends on their severity; those with mild cases can live up to many years with proper treatment and lifestyle changes and those with severe cases have worsen sysmptoms that can cause them to have increased hospitlization

Answer 345

A

a pregnancy related hypertensive disorder
Molecular level: imbalance in angiogenic and anti-angiogenic factors, oxidative stress and inflammation, nitric oxide deficiency
cellular level: trophoblast dysfunction and endothelial cell activation
tissue level: placental abnormalities, kidney and liver damage
organ system: hypertension due to systemic vasoconstriction and endothelial dysfunction, proteinuria due to glomerular damage, elevated liver enzymes and potential sub capsular hematoma, and severe cases may involve seizures, cerebral edema

Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

BIO ANATMY & PHYSIOLOGY-141 Flashcards

Brainscape's Knowledge Genome^TM