Biochemistry Flashcards
What are macromolecules?
Large complex organic molecules
Monomers vs polymers?
MONOMERS are single molecules that are chemically joined to form longer chains called POLYMERS
You simultaneously breakdown polymers and build up monomers in the body. What happens to starch when u eat bread?
Starch is broken into individual monomers. some back to O and CO2. Remaining monomers are then used to build starch the body can use (glycogen)
What is the building up of polymers? As polymers build, what is removed?
Anabolism. Water (dehydration synthesis/condensation - water found in products)
Breaking down polymers? What is added?
Catabolism, hydrolysis. Water (in reactants)
What are the 4 categories of biological molecules? Which one is not a lipid?
Carbs, proteins, nucleic acids. Lipids are not polymers but have unique molecular structure (non-polar)
Oil in water is an example of a _________ interaction. The opposite is ________. Oil is non ______ therefore there are no partial charges. Why does it clump together?
Hydrophobic. Hydrophilic. Non-partial. It clumps bc it does not dissolve, thus minimize its disruptive effect by reducing SA.
Why are polar and ionic substances able to dissolve in water?
Water is polar like these substances. Water is attracted to + and - charges.
What kind of bond is a hydrogen bond, inter and intra molecular? How many H-bonds is an atom able to make to other water atoms
INTER because it is between molecules! 4
Hydrogen bond occurs between the partial negative charge on the _____ (an element) and the partial positive charge on ______ (an element).
oxygen, hydrogen
Cohesion is the ability of water to bond to ______ which gives rise to surface ______, forming ______.
itself, tension, droplets
Adhesion is the abilityof water to bond to other ______ and ______ substances ex. ________ or ________ interaction
polar, ionic, meniscus, hydrophilic
Which polymer is known as cellular energy and building material?
Carbs
Carb monomers are ______________ aka simple _______. They are composed of ________, ________, _________ in a 1:2:1 ratio. Also known as ______ hydrates. Which monosaccharide is most popular?
monosaccharides, sugars, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. carbon. Glucose (6 carbon sugar)
What are the two sugar hallmarks?
- Hydroxyl group on every carbon in the chain execpt one
- Carbonyl group on one carbon
What are isomers?
Molecules with the same chemical formula but different structural formulas.
What are the two types of monosaccharides and how do they differ? Which sugar is a ketose?
- Aldose: carbonly group located on the end of the chain (glucose and galactose)
- Ketose: carbonyl group located on a carbon that is NOT the end (frcutose)
In an aqueous environment, sugars assume a ______ form. When glucose forms a ring, the carbonyl carbon breaks the ______ bond and forms a single bond w the _______ from 5-carbon.
ring, double, oxygen
_________________ are two monosaccharides formed by condensation. it is known as _______ energy. what are some examples?
disaccharides, quick, lactose (milk sugar = glucose and galactose), sucrose (table sugar = glucose and fructose), maltose (beer sugar = glucose + glucose)
the covalent bond formed between two monosaccharide monomers is called?
glycosidic linkage
Polysaccharides are the _______, large complex carbohydrates. what are the two storage polysaccs?
Polymers, plant starch and animal starch (glycogen)
Plant starches store _______ for plants and are mainly composed of ______ __________ monomers. Us heterotrophs can ______ it. What is the difference between amylose and amylopectin?
energy, alpha glucose, digest. Amylopectin is highly branched
In comparison to the long-term storage of plant starch, animal starch is a _______ supply of energy. It is stored in the ______ and _______ muscle (moves bones). Also known as _________, this starch is HIGHLY _________.
quick, liver and skeletal muscle, glycogen, branched
Cellulose is a __________ polysaccharide. It is formed for entirely ___________ chains of glucose. ___________ execpt for certain bacteria/fungi
structural, unbrancched, indegistble
Starch, glycogen and cellulose are all polymers composed of _________ monomers. the first two are energy sources that can be __________ by enzymes, so it can be digested. We cannot digest cellulose for the reason of the ________ formed when glucose _________ form __________.
glucose, hydrolyzed, structure, monomers, polymers
There are two diff configurations of the glucose ring: alpha and beta. In the alpha form, the closed ring has the _______ group on C-1 _______ the plane of the ring. In beta form, it is ________.
hyrdoxyl, alpha, beta
Starch and glycogen have glucose monomers in the _______ form. When the bond is joined (all Os pointing down attached at 1-4) it is called the ___________________. Cellulose has the monomers in the _______ form. (every other glucose is _______). This is called ________________.
alpha, Alpha 1-4 glycosidic linkage, beta, upside down, Beta 1-4 glycosidic linkage
The beta configuration of cellulose allows it to form _________ unbranching chains. ________ bonds form between chains, resulting in strong fibres. Why is it important?
straight, hydrogen.
Dietary fiber increases the weight and size of your stool and softens it
Chitin is a _____________ polysaccharide. It is very strong. Composed of ________ monomers that have a _________ side chain on C-2 instead of a _________ group.
structural, glucose, nitrogen, hydroxyl
Lipids can be divided into ___ groups of molecules. They are ____, __________, _________. They are NOT ________, they differ ______________. They are all __________ (hydrophobic)
3, fats, phospholipids, steroids. polymers, structurally, non-polar
Fats and oils are known as the energy __________ for animals. There is ____ times more energy per gram of ____ than carbs. Composed of C, H and O with much more ___ and ___. Basic structure is called the _________________.
reserve, 2.5, fat, C, H, triglyceride.
structure of triglyceride: 1 ________ per 3 _______ _______. Glycerol is a 3 ______ alcohol. A fatty acid is a long _____________ chain with a ___________ acid attached at one end. There is always an _______ # of carbons in the chain.
glycerol, fatty acids, carbon, hydrocarbon, carboxylic, even
A ______________ reaction removes __ molecules of acid as each fatty acid joins the ________. There are NO _______ regions on the molecule.
condensation, 3, glycerol, polar
What are the two types of fat? Compare their state at room temp, number of bonds and if they are found in plants or animals?
Saturated: solid, no double bonds, animals
Unsaturated: liquid, double bonds, plants
With saturated fats, there are no _______ bonds in the ____________ chain. There is a maximum concentration of __________. Unsaturated fats are _______ because their double bonds create angles that make the skeleton _______. Polyunsaturated are _________ than mono because they have more double bonds (less ________.)
double, hydrocarbon, hydrogen, liquid, kinky, healthier, viscous
The 2nd kind of fat, ___________ have a polar and non-polar region. The basic structure is 1 molecule of __________, 2 _______ _______ and 1 _________ group (replaces 3rd fatty acid). The head (glycerol and phosphate group) is ________. The two fatty acid tails are __________. Phospholipids form a ________ ________ in each cell membrane.
phospholipids, glycerol, fatty acids, phosphate, polar, non-polar, double layer
The 3rd group of fats, __________, has a characteristic structure of 4 fused _____, called a ______ backbone. The variation in steroids is found in the ____________ group. It is a precursor for sex hormones, ____________ in males, ____________ and ___________ in females. Anabolic steroids are for _______ growth and mimic testoterone.
steroids, rings, sterol, functional, testerone, progesterone, estrogen, muscle
___________ direct all metabolic functions. Struc. proteins include ________ with control the skeleton. ________ attach bone and _______ help contract bone.
Proteins, muscles, ligaments, tendons
__________, also known as catalysts are proteins. __________ are messengers. For example, FSH (follicle ___________ hormone) tells ovaries to produce eggs. Proteins also control ____ movement, eg telling WBC to ______ a virus. They transport, eg __________ carries oxygen. They defend, eg, ________ defend the immune system.
Enzymes, hormones, stimulating, cell, attack, hemoglobin, antibodies
Proteins are ploymers and their monomers are _______ acids. All proteins in living things are made from the same set of ____ amino acids,
amino. 20
The structure of an amino acid, is a central ________ with 4 ____________ groups: _________ group, ______ group, _________ (3 common to ALL acids) and the R group. The R determines what three things?
carbon, functional, amino, carboxyl, hydrogen
- Identity of acid, physical properties (size/shape), chem properties (polarity, acidicty, solubility)
A protein polymer is called a __________ chain. It is a linear chain of _______ acids covalently bonded. Each time two amino acids are chemically bonded, a ________ of water is ____. The covalent bond forms between the ______ group on one, and ________ group on the other.
polypeptide, amino, molecule, lost, amino, carboxylic
Function of a protein is determined by its overall ___________. This is the result of __________ levels of the protein.
conformation, structural
The primary level determines the SPECIFIC ___________ of an amino acid. This is determined by the DNA in the ______ coding for a specific ______. Formation of _________ bonds creates a long chain with the ________ group on one end and the _______ group on the other end.
sequence, gene, protein, peptide, carboxlyic, amino
The second level of a protein determines how the ________ chain is __________ or __________. The two secondary structures are ________ ________ and ______ __________ _______. Both are held by __________ bonds.
polypeptide, coiled, folded, alpha helix, beta pleated sheet, hydrogen
The alpha helix polypeptide chain is ________. There are hydrogen bonds between every _____. They are commonly found in ________ and _______. Beta pleated sheets are also held together by _______ bonds. They are found in _______ _____ and ________ ____.
coiled, 4th amino acid, hair, horn, hydrogen, spider silk, silkworm silk
________________ of a protein is when it looses it’s native conformation. It you destroy it, it cannot go back. It reacts to ______ temps, ______pH, and _____ salt concentration.
denaturation, high, high, high
The tertiary level is the overall ____ _____________ of a protein. It folds itself so that the ___________ “R” groups are oriented to the middle of the molecule, _______ from the hydrophobic environment.
3-D conformation, fucntional, away
There are 4 bonds that cause proteins to fold in the tertiary structure. What are they?
- ___________ bonds: form between _________ charged O and ________ charged H on 2 R groups.
- ___________ interactions: 2 __________ R groups clump together to avoid water. eg. the amino acid ________
- __________ bridge: if 2 R groups contain ________, they will form a ________ bond.
- _______ bond: if 2 amino acids have _______ charged R groups, they will form this.
Hydrogen, negatively, positively,
Hydrophobic, non-polar
Disulfide, sulfur, covalent, cysteine
Ionic, oppositely
A sugar and a nitrogenous base is called a ___________. A ribose sugar has a ___ attched to C2 to a deoxyribose sugar has a _____ attached to C2.
nucleoside H, OH
_____________ structures are only found in proteins made of ______ or more polypeptide chains.
Quaternary, two
The 4th group of biological molecules is _________ acids! There is two types: ______________ acid and ____________ acid. The monomer is a __________. The basic stricture is a ___ carbon sugar, a _________ group, and a _________ base. ____ phosphate groups are _____ when incorporated into DNA and RNA. Phosphate groups and sugars are almosy identical, it is the __________ bases that change.
nucleic, deoxyribonucleic, ribonucleic, nucleotide, 5, phosphate, nitrogen, 2 lost, nitrogen
_________ are bases with one ring. These include which 3?
_________ are bases with two rings. These include which 2?
Pyrimidines: thymine, cystosine, uracil
Purines: adenine, adenine
The bond that attaches a phosphate group to C3 and C5 is called a ______________ bond. What kind of bond attaches the bases?
phosphodiester, hydrogen
In pyrmidines, there are ___ H bonds between C and G
In purines, there are ___ H bonds between A and T
3, 2
What is a 5-carbon sugar called? RNA is required for the info in DNA to be _________ and _________.
A pentose, transcribed, translated
How do two amino acids bond?
The amine group of one protein bonds to the carboxyl group of the other protein
The _________ __________ determines and the tertiary and secondary strcuture of a protein. The denaturation of a protein occurs when the ________ and ________ structures are lost. THE PRIMARY STAYS
primary structure, secondary, tertiary
The ________ stores most DNA in the cell. The nuclaer envelope, or nuclear ________ is made up of 2 ___________ bilayers. The outer layer is continuous with the ______. Nuclear _______ allow transport in and out of the nucleus.
nucleus, membrane, phospholipid, ER, pores
What is the dense region in a nucleus that assembles ribosomes? Ribosomes are the sites in a cell in which ________ __________ takes place. Within the ribosome, the rRNA molecules direct the catalytic steps of protein synthesis, stitching _______ _______ to make proteins.
nucleolous, protein synthesis, amino acids
The are two types of ER. One is rough beacuse of the many __________ that coat the membrane. _________ is attached to the RER. Proteins made by ________ are inserted into the RER. They go to the ____ or ______.
ribosomes, proteins, SER, Golgi
Proteins that go to the SER from the _______ are turned into _______ that catalyze the formation of all ________ (cholesterol, phospholipids, fat aka oil). Enzymes also ______ _______ fats, carbs, drugs, toxins
RER, enzymes, lipids, break down
Vesicles are broken off parts of the _____ ER that are going to the golgi. Two types include _______ that can powerful ______ enzymes, and _______ which carry _______ waste + store water and minerals.
smooth, lysosomes, digestive, vacuoles, liquid
The _______ is where proteins are ________ (sugars and phosphte groups added). Proteins are shipped via vesicles to be _______ with lysosomes and _________ out of the cell.
Golgi, modified, fused, exported
The ____________ (powerhouse of a cell) needs _______. It carries out ________ reactions that produce an energy carrying molecule called _____. Folds of the inner membrane that allow for more SA are called _______.
mitochondria, oxygen, metabolic, ATP, cristae
___________ carry out photosynthesis and plant _______ that colour the plant are found here.
Chloroplasts, pigment
____________ is a system of interconncetd proteins that provide cell struc, hold organelles in place, aid in division, etc.
cytoskeleton.
Plants DO NOT have a ___________. Instead, they have a _____ ____ which aids in structure. It is made of ________. Plants also have a central ______ which does two things: stores ______ and minerals and aids in ________. When filled with water, _______ pressure is applied.
cytoskeleton, cell wall, cellulose, vacuole, water, structure, tugor
The cell membrane is made of the __________ bilayer. Every single cell has it. The ______ heads are in contact with water on both sides, never between the ______.
phospholipid, polar, tails
The phospholipid bilayer is in the _______ state. If a cell wants the membrane to be less fluid, add more ___________ fat. To be more fluid, add more ___________ fat (more spaces).
liquid, saturated, unsaturated
Cholesterol _________ the fluidity of a membrane.
stabilizes
How are the nucleus rough smooth ER and Golgi apparatus all related?
Ribosomes are attached to the membrane of the ER, making it “rough.” The RER is also attached to the nuclear envelope that surrounds the nucleus. … When the proteins are complete, they collect and the RER pinches off a vesicle. That vesicle, a small membrane bubble, can move to the cell membrane or the Golgi apparatus
Enzymes are _______ (do not participate in chem reactions). All enzymes have an ________ ______ to which a substrate binds. When binding, the enzyme usually has a __________ structure.
catalysts, active sit, tertiary
The _________ fit model is a model of enzyme activity that describes how an enzyme changes ______ to accomodate a substrate.
induced, shape
All chemical reactions need a certain amount of energy to start a reaction. This is called __________ energy. Enzymes _______ this energy.
activation, lower
A co-factor is a non-_______ atom or molecule that binds to an _______ and is essential for catalytic activity. They are often metals such as Mg and ____. For example, an enzyme essential for making a chem pathway in mitochondria requires a _________ cofactor.
protein, enzyme, Fe, magnesium
A co-enzyme is an ________ molecule that binds to an enzyme and aids in catalytic activity but they are derived from _______ soluble vitamins. They shuttle molecules from enzyme to enzyme. These include ______ A and B.
organic, water, vitamins
Enzyme inhibitors _______ the rate at which an enzyme catalyze a reaction. They cause a _________ in enzyme activity. There are two types, a ___________, where a molecule and substrate compete for the active site. ____________ inhibitor binds to ANOTHER spot on the subsrate. changing to active ______. An irreversible inhibitor includes antibiotics, which inhibit _________ enzymes.
lower, decrease, competitive, noncompetetive, bacterial
___________ regulators are molecules in the body that naturally regulate enzyme activity by binding to an allosteric site in the enzyme. The _______ or stimulate enzyme activity.
Allosteric, inhibit
If an allosteric _________ is the final product in a biochemical pathway, it inhibits the first _________. When product becomes _______, inhibition is reduced and rate increases. Phospholipid molecules move about by _________ within their own monolyaer.
inhibitor, reaction, scarce, diffusion
The phospholipied bilayer of a cell membrane is known as a fluid mosaic. Fluid implies that individual ___________ and ______ moves around within the layer, and mosaic describes the _______ produced.
phospholipids, proteins, pattern
Proteins are imbedded in the ________ and _______ layers of the membranes, and some span the whole membrane. Proteins and lipids have _____________ chains attached to their external surface, forming ___________ and ____________.
inner, outer, carbohydrate, glycolipids and glycoproteins
Membrane proteins can be __________ or ___________. They have many functions, one of which are transport. There are ________ proteins and ________ proteins. _________ form a pore through which molecules move, and in __________ molecules bond to these proteins and cause a change in shape.
integral, peripheral, carrier, channel, carrier, channel
Three types of transport proteins are _________, __________ and __________. ___________ is the one that allows two molecules in two diff directions.
uniport, symport, antiport, antiport
__________ proteins are usually binding sites for hormones. Ex, _________ is produced in response to high blood sugar. Once it has reached its target cell (muscle, liver, fat adipose), a __________ message us sent by the __________ protein. It tells the cell to convert the glucose to __________.
receptor, insulin, second, receptor, glycogen
Transport proteins essentailly provide ___________ passageways for ______ and _______ molecules to pass through the membrane. Glyco lipids and proteins act as receptor molecules binding to hormones and ____________.
hydrophilic, ions, polar, neurotransmitters
Passive transport is the movement of a substance from _______ to ______ concentration without the expidenture of energy. They move _______ the concentration gradient.
high, low, with
Cell membranes are __________ permeable, which is very different from semi permeable. The two types of passive transport as _________ diffusion and ________ diffusion.
selectively, simple, faciliated
Molecules that CANNOT pass via simple diffusion include those that are ______ and ________ (glucose, sucrose) or ________ (CL-, K+, Na+). Faciliated diffusion assists in this. Simple diffusion allows ________ molecules (O2, CO2, N2) and _______ and ________ molecules (water and glycerol). Simple diffusion depends on size and charge.
large, polar, ionic, hydrophobic, small, polar
_________ water is not bonded to solute and thus it is the only kind of water that can pass through a ___________. ____________ solutions have a higher concentration of free water. ________ has lesser. _________ means the concentrations are equal.
free, membrane, hypotonic, hypertonic, isotonic
In a hypertonic solution, water moving in and out of the cytoplasm of a plant cells equally means it is being ___________. In an isotonic solution, the cell is _________. In a hypotnic, it is ________ (normal)
plasmolyzed, flaccid, turgid
Active transport is transport that goes ________ the concentration gradient to either maintain a ____________ in the cell or get rid of an __________ substance. A gradient is a ___________ in concentration.
against, concentration, unwanted, difference
In primary active transport, _________ charged ions are moved across membranes. Secondary active transport uses the ____________ gradient of an ion, established by a primary pump, as its _______ source.
