bio test (1) - 5/16/24

Question 1

What is biotechnology?

Answer 1

Biotechnology is the use of
biological processes to develop
new products or methods for
improving human health and
society.

Question 2

What are the areas in biotechnology?

Answer 2

Bioinformatics: solve biological problems using computers
(e.g., the human genome project, cancer genome project)

Red Biotechnology: medical applications

Blue Biotechnology: marine/aquatic applications

Green Biotechnology: agriculture, environmental science
applications

White Biotechnology: industrial applications

Question 3

What is “Cancer Genome Atlas”? What are its advantages and disadvantages?

Answer 3

• established in 2005
• document genetic mutation of most types of cancers
  advantages: better understanding of cancer, assists in research for treatment/therapy development
  disadvantages: tumour cells are processed at a single moment (we don’t have information about overall development of these cancers), there are other ways to collect info about cancers (rather than DNA)

Question 4

What is “Genetic Screening”? What are its advantages and disadvantages?

Answer 4

• test for probability of certain hereditary diseases (e.g., Prenatal Diagnostic Test, Forensic/Identity Testing)
  advantages: promotes early treatment, provides peace of mind (knowing you don’t have certain diseases)
  disadvantages: expensive, can lead to false results (some diseases can still develop even if low probability is shown)

Question 5

What is “Regenerative Medicine”? What are its advantages and disadvantages?

Answer 5

• branch of medicine that develops methods to regrow, repair or replace diseased cells/organs/tissues
  advantages: potential of curing diseases/illnesses, prolong our lives
  disadvantages: long-term effect is unknown, ethical issue: where do we draw the line of what can and can’t be replaced?

Question 6

What are “Cell-Based Therapies? What are its advantages and disadvantages?

Answer 6

• forces unspecialized cells (stem cells) to turn into specific cells that need replacement
  advantages: potentially powerful technique to cure many diseases and illnesses, risk of rejection is reduced (own cells are being used)
  disadvantages: ethical issues; stem cells come from embyro, adult stem cells are limited, still getting researched

Question 7

What is “Animal Cloning”? What are its advantages and disadvantages?

Answer 7

• producing identical organisms using the genes from an existing adult
  advantages: can produce disease resistant animals to develop high quality herds or flocks, cloned animals can be used for biomed research
  disadvantages: ethical issues (animal welfare), cloned animals develop diseases or illnesses (and die prematurely)

Question 8

What is “Genetically Modified Foods”? What are its advantages and disadvantages?

Answer 8

• gene inserted to food plants so that the plant can have certain characteristics that consumers like
  advantages: increased nutrients, productivity, food production to feed the growing populations, social stability, reduce the use of herbicides and insecticides
  disadvantages: long-term effect on human health is unknown, domination of world food production, ethical issues: tampering with nature

Question 9

What is “Bioremediation”? What are its advantages and disadvantages?

Answer 9

• genetically modified microorganisms that will breakdown harmful substances
  advantages: complete destruction of contaminants is possible, carried without disruption of normal activity, less expensive
  disadvantages: limited to biodegradable compounds, difficult to implement on a large scale, takes a long time to complete

Question 10

What is “Gene Therapies”? What are its advantages and disadvantages?

Answer 10

• modified genes are re-inserted back into a patient to correct an underlying genetic problem
  advantages: creates hope for many people (only way to cure certain diseases)
  disadvantages: body’s immune system may reject insertion of new genes, ethical issues (design babies, superior humans)

Question 11

What is the nucleus?

Answer 11

brain of cell, controls DNA and all activities, in both plant and animals.

also has a nuclear membrane protecting it.

Question 11

What is the nucleolus?

Answer 11

ribosome assembly area, in both plant and animals

Question 12

What are chromosomes?

Answer 12

where DNA is stored, in both plant and animals

Question 13

What is the endoplasmic reticulum?

Answer 13

responsible for material movement in cell, in both plant and animals

Question 14

What are ribosomes?

Answer 14

protein builder, in both plant and animals

Question 15

What are the golgi bodies?

Answer 15

sort & delivery of proteins, in both plant and animals

Question 16

What are the vacuoles?

Answer 16

waste manager/storage, in both plant and animals

Question 17

What is the cytoplasm?

Answer 17

gel-like filling within cell, organelles can be moved around, in both plant and animals

Question 18

What is the cell membrane?

Answer 18

enter/exiting regulator, in both plant and animals

Question 19

What is the centriole?

Answer 19

organizes spindle fibres, structural support, animal only

Question 20

What are the chloroplasts?

Answer 20

photosynthesis conduction → provides energy with sunlight, plant only

Question 21

What are the lysosomes?

Answer 21

breaks down food, animal only, sometimes plants

Question 22

What is the cell wall?

Answer 22

provides more protection; surrounds membrane. Made up of cellulose. Protects against mechanical stress and water pressure. Plant only

Question 23

What is the difference between the animal cell and plant cells?

Answer 23

Animal cells; circular shape, only have cell membrane for protection, have centriole, small vacuole
Plant cell; have chloroplasts and cell wall (for photosynthesis and extra protection), large vacuole for water retention and rigid/rectangular shape

Question 24

What is the hierarchy of structures in animals? Describe each part of it.

Answer 24

Stem Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ System → Organisms

stem cells: cells that turn into specialized cells with specific functions (e.g., muscle cell)
tissues: group of specialized cells connecting together to perform a specific function
organs: group of diffdrent tissues connected together to function for a specific organ (muscle and nerve tissues make up heart organ)
organ systems: one or more organs working together to perform a system (heart organ makes up circulatory system)

Question 25

What is the cell theory?

Answer 25

• basic units of life
• all organisms are made up of one or more
• all made from each other
• different functions (converting energy, break down sugar and proteins to digest, excreting molecules that aren’t in use, dividing/growing

Question 26

Why is DNA important?

Answer 26

Controls many of your features 🡪 from eye colour to the ability to digest milk!
Determines how your body may function and look

Question 27

Organization of DNA

Answer 27

Chromosome: organized and condensed DNA molecule
Chromatin: mass of very long fibers (combination of DNA and proteins)

(chromatins are what chromotids become before they condense; baby stage

Question 28

Explain the structure of chromosomes

Answer 28

Chromatid: One copy of a duplicated chromosome
Centromere: A.K.A. Kinetochore, part of a chromosome that joins two sisters chromatids together

Question 29

What are genes?

Answer 29

DNA is divided into segments called genes. They are responsible for controlling the production of various proteins involved in cell activities.

Question 30

Explain the structure of DNA

Answer 30

• DNA is a double helix
• It is a long chain of repeating subunits called nucleotides
• Two strands are called “sugar-phosphate backbone”
• Middle rows are “nitrogenous bases”

Question 31

What are the four types of nitrogenous bases? What is a nucleotide?

Answer 31

Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine. (Nucleotides; sugar, phosphate and bases)

Question 32

What is DNA coding?

Answer 32

• The order of base pairs; A-T, C-G are put together is in the genetic code (the code provides instructions)
• “Complementary base pairing” is when one strand is known, then the sequence of bases can be determined through the pairing

Question 33

What is the cell cycle? What’s the purpose?

Answer 33

The cell cycle is a series of events that take place in order for a cell to grow and divide.
Purpose: Reproduction (produce offspring), growth (cell division helps organisms grow, cells divide rather than grow, if they become too large), repair (replace dead or damaged cells)

Question 34

Describe each stage in the cell cycle (interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis)

Answer 34

Interphase:
- Cell spends 90% of time in this stage
- G1: Cell Grows and Performs its normal functions
- S: Chromosomes are replicated in preparation cell division.
- G2: Cell continues to grow in preparation for cell division.

Prophase:
- Nuclear membrane disappears
- Centriole moves to opposite sides
- Spindle fibers begin to grow out of them and move towards the centromeres
- Chromosomes condense and thicken
- They are now made up of two identical chromatids connected by centromeres

Metaphase:
- Double stranded chromosomes align in the middle (e plate) of the cell
- Spindle fibers prepare to attach themselves to the chromosomes and pull them apart

Anaphase:
- Spindle fibers shorten and pull sister chromatids to opposite poles of cells

Telophase:
- Spindle fibers disintegrate
- Chromosomes reach opposite sides of cell
- Two nuclei are formed
- Nuclear membrane begins to reform

Cytokinesis:
- Last stage of cell cycle, not mitosis
- Cytoplasm splits in half
- Cytokinesis in: Plants: cell plate forms across cell; eventually becoming cell wall. Animals: cell membrane pinches off

After Cell Division:
- Daughter cells are formed; each with the 46 chromosomes
- Cell cycle repeats for each cell individually

Question 35

How does cancer work on a cellular level?

Answer 35

When cells don’t stay in interphase for long enough and therefore grow/divide too fast. They take valuable nutrients from regular cells.

Question 36

What is a malignant and benign tumour?

Answer 36

Malignant = cancerous tumour. They interfere with other tumours. Metastasis can occur.
Benign = non-cancerous tumour.

Question 37

Risk factors of cancer

Answer 37

environmental factors (carcinogens) such as tobacco smoke, viruses, chemicals in plastic, radiation (x-rays)

Question 38

What is a stem cell?

Answer 38

• Undifferentiated/specialized cells.
• Stem cells undergo mitosis to produce two identical daughter cells
• Depending on which genes are activated, the daughter cells may develop into different types of specialized cells

Question 39

Where can you obtain stem cells?

Answer 39

Adult bone marrow and developing fetus

Question 40

How can stem cells be used?

Answer 40

Generate new tissues and organs

Question 41

What are the problems that exist in using stem cells?

Answer 41

• Manipulating calls to be specialized isn’t always possible
• Expensive
• Getting embryonic stem cells from a growing fetus/embryo can be unethical

Question 42

What adult stem cells exist and how they can be used?

Answer 42

Can be used in regenerative medicine to regenerative medicine to replace damaged cells. Liver, muscle, skin and blood stem cells can be used; they’re all found in bone marrow.

Question 43

What is differentiation?

Answer 43

• When unspecialized stem cells develop into specialized cells

Question 44

Describe the process of: One cell –> Complex multi-cellular organism

Answer 44

Sperm + Egg = Zygote –> (mitosis) Blastocyst

blastocyst: hollow storage of cells; they then go through differenti

Question 45

What is a specialized cell?

Answer 45

Specialized cells arise from stem cells through a process called cellular differentiation. They have specific functions. An organism requires different types of cells.

Question 46

What is an ultrasound?

Answer 46

Description:
Uses ultra high frequency sound
waves to create a digital image.

Type of cancer diagnosed:
- View soft tissues such as the heart or liver
- Ovarian cancer

Risks, Limitations, Disadvantage:
- Very safe to use with pregnancy
- Disrupted by air, so it is not ideal for hollow organs

Question 47

What is a CT Scan?

Answer 47

Description:
- Takes multiple x-rays of the body from
different angles
- Images are assembled by a computer to
form a series of detailed images
- View parts of the body that can not be
seen in a typical x-ray scan

Type of cancer diagnosed:
- Lung cancer

Risks, Limitations, Disadvantages:
- X-Rays can cause DNA damage

Question 48

What is a Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)?

Answer 48

Description:
- Use radio waves and strong magnetic fields to create an image that has more detail than a CT scan
- Computers assemble information into a 3D image

Type of cancer diagnosed:
- Brain cancer

Risks, Limitations, Disadvantages:
- No metal on patient
- Claustrophobia (lying down in a
small tube for a long period of time)

Question 49

What is surgery?

Answer 49

Description and Advantages:
- Physically removing the cancerous tissue

Risks, Limitations, Disadvantages:
- Tumour must be easily accessible and well-defined

Question 50

What is chemotherapy?

Answer 50

Description and Advantages:
- Treat cancer using drugs
- Works by slowing or stopping cancer cells from dividing or spreading
- Drugs can be injected or taken orally
- Can be used to shrink a tumour prior to surgery or radiation

Risks, Limitations, Disadvantages:
- Side effects include hair loss, nausea, fatigue

Question 51

What is radiation?

Answer 51

Description and Advantages:
- Since cancer cells divide rapidly, DNA is easily damaged by ionizing radiation
- Radiation is directed at tumour by focused laser beam or implanting a radioactive source
into the tumour (minimizes effects of radiation)

Risks, Limitations, Disadvantages:
- Can damage healthy cells in the same area
- Skin problems (itching, dryness, peeling)

Question 52

What is biophotonics?

Answer 52

Description and Advantages:
- Using beams of light to detect and treat cancer
- Allows early detection of cancer, with fewer side effects than radiation and is more accurate

Risks, Limitations, Disadvantages:
- May cause pain and swelling in nearby cells
- Expensive, limited by investment in technology

Question 53

What are some sources of stem cells?

Answer 53

Embryonic Stem Cells:
- Found in embryo about 5 days old (called Blastocyst)
- Can differentiate into any kind of cell

Cord Blood Stem Cells:
- Found in umbilical cord connecting fetus to mother
- Can differentiate into different types of blood cells

Adult Stem Cells:
- Found in different tissues of a living organism
- Can differntiate into any type of cells

Question 54

What is an endoscopy?

Answer 54

Description:
- A fiber optic cable that delivers light, a tiny camera, and a cable that sends images to a screen.
- Tools, such as forceps, can be attach to take cell
samples (biopsy).
- Used to look for abnormal growths.

Type of cancer diagnosed:
Colon cancer (colonoscopy)

Risks, Limitations, Disadvantages:
Patient may be given a sedative as it can be
uncomfortable.

Question 55

What is a mammogram?

Answer 55

Description:
A specialized X-Ray Technique

Type of cancer diagnosed:
Breast Cancer

Risks, Limitations, Disadvantages:
- X-Rays can cause DNA damage
- Particularly harmful to rapidly dividing cells, like a fetus, so pregnancy is a limitation