bio task 2 Flashcards
(139 cards)
1
Q
Asexual Reproduction
A
Reproduction without fusion of gametes, resulting in genetically identical offspring to the parent.
2
Q
Sexual Reproduction
A
Reproduction involving the fusion of male and female gametes, leading to genetic variation in offspring.
3
Q
Internal Fertilisation
A
The union of male and female gametes inside the body of the female parent, increasing the likelihood of successful fertilisation and higher offspring survival rates.
4
Q
External Fertilisation
A
The union of male and female gametes outside the body of the parent, leading to a large number of offspring but with decreased survival rates and higher energy expenditure to find a mate.
5
Q
EMR sources
A
Sources of electromagnetic radiation including gamma rays, x-rays, and ultraviolet (UV) light.
6
Q
Ionise atoms
A
Process where electromagnetic waves interact with and cause atoms to lose or gain electrons.
7
Q
DNA repair system
A
Mechanism that corrects changes or damage to the DNA molecule.
8
Q
Pyrimidine dimmers
A
Covalent linkages formed between adjacent pyrimidine bases in DNA due to UV light exposure, leading to mutations.
9
Q
Ethidium bromide
A
Chemical used in molecular biology to visualize DNA, which can cause frameshift mutations.
10
Q
Jumping genes
A
Segments of DNA that can change their position in chromosomal DNA, leading to mutations.
11
Q
Point Mutations
A
Mutations that affect one or a few nucleotides within a gene sequence.
12
Q
Silent mutation
A
Mutation that has no effect on the encoded amino acid due to genetic code redundancy.
13
Q
Chromosome mutation
A
Mutation that changes or affects a long segment of DNA, such as deletion, inversion, translocation, or duplication.
14
Q
Somatic mutations
A
Genetic alterations acquired by a cell, usually caused by external mutagens, not passed onto offspring.
15
Q
Germ-line mutations
A
Mutations in germ cells (sperm or ovum) that may be passed onto offspring during fertilization.
16
Q
Coding DNA
A
DNA sequences that encode for proteins, also known as genes.
17
Q
Non-coding DNA
A
DNA sequences that do not encode for proteins, making up the majority of the human genome.
18
Q
Exons
A
Coding segments of DNA involved in gene expression, making it into the final mRNA.
19
Q
Introns
A
Non-coding segments of DNA that are usually not translated, but can affect gene expression if mutated.
20
Q
Fertilisation
A
Process where two gametes come together to form a zygote, restoring the full set of chromosomes and causing genetic variation.
21
Q
Meiosis
A
Cell division process that produces gametes, leading to genetic variation through mutation, crossing-over, and non-disjunction.
22
Q
Non-disjunction
A
Failure of homologous chromosomes to separate during cell division, leading to abnormal chromosome numbers in daughter cells
23
Q
Mutation
A
Changes in DNA sequence that can be caused by various factors such as EMR sources, chemicals, naturally occurring mutagens, point mutations, and chromosomal mutations
24
Q
Gene pool
A
The total genetic diversity found within a population, influenced by processes like mutation, gene flow, and genetic drift
25
Gene flow
The transfer of genetic variation (different alleles) from one population to another through migration of individuals, leading to changes in allele frequency and genetic diversity
26
Genetic drift
Changes in allele frequency within a population due to random events, such as bottlenecking and the founder effect, which can lead to loss of genetic variation
27
Bottlenecking
A sharp reduction in the size of a population due to a catastrophic event, leading to a decrease in genetic diversity
28
Founder effect
The reduced genetic diversity that results when a population is descended from a small number of colonizing ancestors
29
Recombinant DNA
DNA formed by combining genetic material from multiple sources, often achieved through the use of plasmids as carriers for foreign DNA
30
Transgenic animals
Animals that have had foreign genes inserted into their genome, often for the purpose of producing specific proteins or pharmaceuticals
31
Xenotransplantation
The transplantation of organs or tissues from one species to another, often involving genetically modified animals as organ donors
32
Genetically modified (GM) crops
Plants that have had their genetic material altered through biotechnology to exhibit specific traits such as herbicide tolerance, insect resistance, or improved nutritional content
33
Biotechnology
The use of biological processes and organisms to develop new products and technologies, with applications in agriculture, medicine, and industry
34
Natural selection
The process by which organisms with advantageous traits for their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, leading to the increase of those traits in a population over time
35
Nanotechnology
The manipulation of matter on an atomic and molecular scale to create new materials and devices with a wide range of applications
36
Biodiversity
The variety of life forms at all levels of biological organization, including genetic diversity within species, species diversity within ecosystems, and diversity of ecosystems
37
Conservation
The sustainable use and management of natural resources to ensure their long-term viability, including efforts to protect and preserve biodiversity
38
Genetic variation
The diversity of alleles and genotypes within a population, essential for adaptation and evolution in response to environmental changes
39
Green corridors
Strips of habitat that connect isolated patches of natural areas, allowing for the movement of species and the maintenance of genetic diversity
40
Stem cells
Undifferentiated cells with the potential to develop into many different cell types in the body, offering great promise for medical research and treatment
41
Green Corridors
Connectivity between fragmented habitats to facilitate migration and genetic exchange among populations
42
Seed Banks
Facilities storing seeds for conservation and future use, such as the Svalbard Global Seed Vault
43
Plant Propagation
Reproduction and multiplication of plants using biotechnological methods to increase crop yield
44
Artificial Selection
Human-directed breeding of organisms with desirable traits to produce the next generation
45
In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
Fertilization process where eggs and sperm are combined outside the body and implanted into the uterus
46
Therapeutic Cloning
Creating embryonic stem cells for medical use by replacing the nucleus of an egg cell with a body cell's nucleus
47
Transgenic Species
Organisms containing genes from another species introduced through genetic engineering
48
Hybridization
Crossing genetically different strains to produce offspring with desirable traits
49
CRISPR
Genome editing technique using clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats
50
Gene Sequencing
Determining the order of nucleotides in a DNA segment to understand genetic information
51
Artificial Insemination
Deliberate introduction of sperm into the uterus of an organism without sexual intercourse
52
Artificial Pollination
Manually transferring pollen from one plant to another to influence traits and increase crop yields
53
Whole Organism Cloning
Creating a genetically identical organism through somatic cell nuclear transfer
54
Gene Cloning
Producing multiple identical copies of a specific DNA sequence for various applications
55
Plasmids
Circular DNA molecules used in gene cloning to carry the target gene into host organisms
56
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Amplifying DNA sequences in a test tube to produce multiple copies for analysis or modification
57
Gel Electrophoresis
Separating DNA fragments based on size and charge using an electric field in a gel matrix
58
PCR
Process to amplify DNA for HIV detection and forensic science.
59
Thermal Cycler
Device for PCR with denaturation, annealing, and elongation steps.
60
DNA Primers
Short DNA sequences for initiating DNA replication.
61
Taq Polymerase
Heat-tolerant DNA polymerase used in PCR.
62
Bacteriophages
Small viruses infecting bacteria via lytic or lysogenic cycles.
63
Transgenic Organism
Organism containing genes from another species.
64
Pharming
Use of genetic engineering to produce pharmaceuticals.
65
Biodegradable Plastics
Plastics decomposed by living organisms.
66
Genetic Variation
Differences in DNA sequences among individuals.
67
Melanoma
Type of skin cancer with high incidence in Australia.
68
Golden Rice
Genetically modified rice with increased vitamin A content.
69
Chromosomal Mutations
Re-arrangement of large DNA portions impacting organisms.
70
Crossing-over
Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes.
71
Anaphase
Stage of cell division when sister chromatids separate.
72
Vegetative Propagation
A form of asexual reproduction in plants, using vegetative parts to propagate new plants, resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring.
73
Pollination
The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower, leading to the formation of seeds and fruits, aiding in the maintenance of genetic diversity within a population.
74
Budding
A form of asexual reproduction in fungi, where a small bud grows on the surface of the organism, eventually breaking off to form a new individual.
75
Sporulation
The process of producing spores, which are reproductive cells capable of developing into a new organism, aiding in the dispersal and reproduction of fungi.
76
Binary Fission
A form of asexual reproduction in bacteria and protists, where a single organism divides into two identical daughter cells, contributing to rapid population growth.
77
Parthenogenesis
A form of asexual reproduction where an organism can produce offspring without mating, increasing the chance of survival.
78
Gametogenesis
The process of gamete formation, including spermatogenesis in males and oogenesis in females, essential for sexual reproduction.
79
Haploid
A cell containing half the number of chromosomes as a diploid cell, crucial for the formation of gametes and genetic diversity.
80
Zygote
The cell formed by the fusion of male and female gametes during fertilisation, developing into a new organism with a mixed genotype from both parents.
81
Implantation
The attachment of the blastocyst to the endometrium, allowing the embryo to access nutrients and develop, facilitated by the secretion of hormones such as human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG).
82
Menstruation
Uterine bleeding, accompanied by shedding of the endometrium for 1-4 days
83
Pre-ovulation
Endometrial repair begins; ovarian follicle development; uterine lining thickens for 5-12 days
84
Ovulation
Rupture of mature follicle, releasing egg on days 13-15
85
Secretion
Watery mucus secretion by endometrium, cervix, and uterine tubes; unfertilized egg movement and breakdown; corpus luteum development for 16-20 days
86
Pre-menstruation
Degeneration of corpus luteum; deterioration of endometrium for 21-28 days
87
HCG
Embryotic hormone maintaining corpus luteum and receptive uterus lining in first trimester of pregnancy
88
Progesterone
Hormone from placenta prohibiting muscle contractions in uterus
89
Oestrogen
Hormone from placenta for female reproductive system development and regulation
90
FSH
Pituitary gland hormone stimulating follicle maturation
91
LH
Pituitary gland hormone stimulating ovulation and corpus luteum development
92
GnRH
Hypothalamus hormone stimulating pituitary gland to secrete LH and FSH
93
Oxytocin
Hormone inducing uterine contractions and critical for triggering and maintaining labor
94
Artificial insemination
Inserting sperm cells from a male animal with desirable traits into the uterus of a female for impregnation and producing offspring
95
Artificial pollination
Controlled transfer of pollen from one selected flower to another to determine parentage of next generation plants
96
Cloning
Asexual reproduction creating genetically identical offspring to the parent, either by plant stem cell or animal genetic material implantation
97
Chromosomes
Structures containing DNA and proteins that must replicate for cell division
98
DNA Replication
Formation of two identical DNA strands from one, involving unzipping, replication fork, primer binding, DNA synthesis, Okazaki fragments, and re-formation of double helix
99
DNA Structure
Double helix made of nucleotides with phosphate, sugar, and 4 types of nitrogenous bases
100
Mitosis
Cell division resulting in two identical daughter cells
101
Meiosis
Cell division resulting in four non-identical daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell
102
Watson and Crick DNA Model
Model explaining DNA structure with nucleotide composition, pairing, bonding, and double helix formation
103
Ligase
Enzyme that joins new DNA strands and reconnects hydrogen bonds of base pairs.
104
Interphase
Stage where DNA is replicated, new organelles are made, and the cell increases in size.
105
Prophase
Phase in mitosis where chromatin condenses into chromosomes, centrioles separate, and spindles form.
106
Metaphase
Shortest phase of mitosis where chromosomes line up at the middle of the cell and spindle fibres attach to them.
107
Anaphase
Phase of mitosis where spindle fibres pull chromosomes apart, causing chromatids to move towards centrioles.
108
Telophase
Phase where 2 nuclei form, DNA uncoils, and in animal cells, the cell membrane pinches in to form 2 daughter cells.
109
Cytokinesis
Division of cytoplasm creating 2 new cells, begins in telophase.
110
Crossing-over
Occurs in Meiosis I, increases genetic variety in offspring and species population.
111
Random assortment
Occurs in Metaphase I of Meiosis I, increases genetic variety by mixing genes from both parents.
112
Prokaryotes
Have DNA in nucleoid, circular chromosome, simultaneous protein synthesis, and 1 allele per gene.
113
Eukaryotes
Have DNA in nucleus, linear chromosomes, non-simultaneous protein synthesis, and 2 alleles per gene.
114
Transcription
Process where a gene's DNA sequence is copied to make an RNA molecule.
115
Translation
Process where mRNA is decoded to build a protein containing a specific series of amino acids.
116
mRNA
Carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosome for protein synthesis.
117
tRNA
Carries amino acids to the ribosome and matches them to the correct codons on the mRNA.
118
Genotype
An organism's complete set of genetic material.
119
Phenotype
An organism's observable traits, influenced by both genotype and the environment.
120
Melanin
Pigment influenced by genes and sunlight, protecting skin from UV radiation
121
Proteins
3D structures made of amino acid chains, with functions like signaling, enzymes, and storage
122
Primary structure
Linear sequence of amino acids in a protein
123
Secondary structure
Folding of the amino acid sequence due to hydrogen bonding
124
Tertiary structure
3D shape of a protein due to interactions with its immediate environment
125
Quaternary structure
Structure of a protein made up of multiple polypeptide chains
126
Autosomal
Gene not on a sex chromosome, one of the 22 numbered chromosomes
127
Sex Linkage
Determination of an individual's sex by the sex chromosomes contributed by the sperm and egg
128
Co-Dominance
Both alleles expressed equally, e.g. roan cattle with red and white coat
129
Incomplete Dominance
Phenotype in between both alleles when an individual is heterozygous
130
Multiple Alleles
More than two alleles for a trait, e.g. blood type in humans
131
Dihybrid Crosses
Crosses considering the inheritance of two characteristics simultaneously
132
Pedigrees
Family records used to study the transmission of hereditary conditions
133
Allele Frequency
Genetic variability in populations determined by relative amounts of phenotypes, genotypes, or alleles
134
Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP's)
Variations at a single base pair in DNA, creating different phenotypes
135
Short Tandem Repeats (STR's)
Non-coding DNA with repeating nucleotide strings, used for paternity tests and crime investigations
136
DNA Sequencing
Determining the sequence of nucleotide bases of a gene on a chromosome
137
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)
Technique to make many copies of a specific region of DNA in vitro
138
DNA Profiling
Identifying and comparing individuals by their DNA characteristics
139
Gel Electrophoresis
Technique to separate DNA fragments based on their size, used in DNA profiling
