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bio exam 2 vocabulary > bio exam 2 vocab > Flashcards

bio exam 2 vocab Flashcards

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1
Q

Founder effect

A

change in allele frequencies that occurs when new population is established

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2
Q

Genetic bottleneck

A

when a population is greatly reduced in size, limiting the genetic diversity of the species. often caused by disease/floods/fires/deforestation

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3
Q

acclimation

A

change in an individual phenotype that occurs due to change in environment in a lab setting

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4
Q

natural experiment

A

Change in conditions enables comparisons of groups, rather than manipulations of conditions by researchers

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5
Q

adaptation

A

heritable trait that increases the fitness of an individual in a particular environment

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6
Q

fitness

A

ability of an individual to produce survive and fertile offspring

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7
Q

Darwin’s 4 postulates

A
  1. variation exists among individual organisms that make up a population, such as variation and size
  2. some of the trait differences are heritable
  3. survival and reproductive success are highly variable, some will die
  4. subset of individuals that survive best and produce the most offspring is not a random sample of the population
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8
Q

artificial selection

A

deliberate manipulation by humans as animal and plant breeding, of the genetic composition of a population by allowing only individuals with desirable traits to reproduce. artificial breeding + struggle to exist = natural selection

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9
Q

sedimentary rocks

A

form from sand or mud or other materials, form slowly

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10
Q

structural homology

A

similarity in adult morphology - overall shape or appearance of an organism and is component parts

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11
Q

developmental homology

A

similarity in developmental structures or processes

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12
Q

genetic homology

A

similarity that occurs in DNA nucleotide sequences, RNA, or amino acid

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13
Q

vestigal traits

A

reduced/ incompletely developed structure with little/no function but is related to functioning species

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14
Q

acclimatization

A

change of phenotype in response to environment

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15
Q

extant species

A

those living today

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16
Q

fossil record

A

all the fossil that have been found on Earth and described in the scientific literature

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17
Q

fossil

A

trace of an organism that lived in the past, bones/branch/shell

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18
Q

descent with modification

A
  1. species change through time

2. species are related by common ancestry

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19
Q

Darwin and Wallace

A

evolution by natural selection, natural selection is responsible for evolution, variation was the key, population thinking

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20
Q

Lamarck

A

evolution as the change through time, evolution is progressive in producing larger and better species, evolution is inheritance of acquired characteristics

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21
Q

Aritisotle

A

scale of nature, sequence of rank in nature based on size and complexity

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22
Q

Plato

A

typological thinking, organisms were perfect essences created by God and unchanging

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23
Q

typological thinking

A

organisms of species conforms to specific norm, ignores variation

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24
Q

population thinking

A

way of thinking that emphasizes the importance of variation among individuals in a population, opposite of typological which ignores variation

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25
Q

evolution

A

allele frequencies that change over time, populations evolve

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26
Q

process component

A

mechanism that produces the pattern of set of observations

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27
Q

pattern component

A

statement that summarizes a series of observations about the natural world

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28
Q

theory

A

explanation for a broad class of observations that is widely supported by overwhelming evidence

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29
Q

populations

A

individuals of the same species live in the same area at the same time

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30
Q

gene flow

A

alleles added/lost through immigration/emigration, makes alleles more similar between populations, restores genetic diversity from inbreeding/genetic drift, can reduce/increase fitness of animals if mated with less/more fit individuals

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31
Q

genetic drift

A

chance disappearance of allies, random allele frequency changes, especially affects small populations, may increase genetic variation by introducing new alleles/may decrease it by removing alleles, random fitness usually reduces average fitness

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32
Q

random mating

A

individuals don’t choose mate

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33
Q

HWP Assumptions

A
  1. random mating
  2. no natural selection
  3. no genetic drift
  4. no gene flow
  5. no mutation
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34
Q

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

A

observed allele frequencies and allele frequencies of HWP match, if not evolution has occurred

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35
Q

Genotype Frequencies

A

p^2+q^2+2pq=1
p^2= dominant homo
q^2= recessive homo
2pq= hetero

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36
Q

Allele frequencies

A

p+q=1
p= dominant
q= recessive

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37
Q

Hardy Weinberg Principle

A

mathematical null hypothesis for study of evolutionary process

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38
Q

gene pool

A

gametes produced in each generation into a single group

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39
Q

sexual selection

A

one sex mates with another sex, leads to changes in allele frequencies and increases fitness, form of natural selection

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40
Q

inbreeding depression

A

decline in average fitness that may take place when homozygosity increases and heterozygous decreases in a population

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41
Q

deleterious alleles

A

alleles that lower fitness in a population

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42
Q

genetic variation

A

the number of relative frequencies of alleles that are present in a particular population

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43
Q

ecological/environmental selection

A

type of natural selection that favors individuals with traits that enable them to survive/reproduce, Natural selection that does not include sexual selection

44
Q

natural selection

A

occurs when individuals with certain phenotypes produce more surviving offspring than others, violates hwp, natural selection = ecological selection + sexual selection, only evolutionary process that results in adaptation, can maintain/increase/reduce genetic variation mostly decreases, can produce adaption increasing fitness

45
Q
  1. Directional Selection
A

changes average value of trait, change in phenotype changes in one direction, tends to decrease, graph favors a side

46
Q
  1. Stabilizing Selection
A

reduces both extremes of phenotypes, variation is reduces, no change in average value of a trait over time, graph is centered

47
Q
  1. Disruptive Selection
A

increases variation in a trait, eliminated phenotypes of average value and favors those of extreme value, graph is split both ways

48
Q
  1. Balancing Selection
A

maintains variation in a trait, no phenotype has a distinct advantage, graph is centered and spread out, most common are heterozygous advantage and frequency dependent selection

49
Q

Purifying Selection

A

when deleterious alleles are lowered or eliminated

50
Q

Heterozygous Advantage

A

heterozygous individuals have higher fitness, commonly in genes involved with immune systems recognized to destroy invading bacteria

51
Q

Frequency Dependent Selection

A

occurs when certain alleles are favored when they are rare but not when they are common ex.) guppies are favored because of their rare color goes unseen by predators

52
Q

Intersexual Selection

A

selection of an individual of one sex for mating by an individual of another sex

53
Q

Intrasexual Selection

A

selection of individuals within a sex,fighting for mates and territory

54
Q

Bateman-Trivers hypothesis

A
  1. ) if female invests a lot into a few eggs, they should protect their investment by choosing a good male. inversely if males invest little in sperm then they should be willing to mate with any female
  2. ) if there are an equal number of males and females in a population, then male will compete
  3. ) if male fitness is limited by access to mate then any allele that increases a male’s attractiveness to a female male competition should increase, meaning sexual selection should act more strongly on males than females
55
Q

Intersexual Sexual Selection: “honest signals” hypothesis

A

healthiest and best nourished organisms in a population have best phenotypes (ex. colorful beaks and feathers)

56
Q

Sexual Dimorphism

A

can result from sexual selection, any trait that differs between male and females

57
Q

Pseudogenes are __________.

A

nonfunctional, vestigial genes

58
Q

transitional

A

is a trait in a fossil species that is intermediate between those of ancestral (older) and derived (younger) species.

59
Q

fitness trade off

A

compromise between two traits that cannot be optimized simultaneously

60
Q

genetic correlation

A

selection on one trait causes a change in another trait

61
Q

misconception 1: natural selection changes individuals

A

natural selection does not change individuals, variation changes individuals and therefore acts on populations

62
Q

misconception 2: natural selection is “Lamarkian” aka individuals changes because of their environment/ changed traits are passed on

A

individuals do not change when selected, they produce more. natural selection sorts not changes

63
Q

misconception 3: individuals adapt

A

individuals do not adapt, populations do. phenotypic changes aren’t passed down because no alleles have changed.

64
Q

misconception 4: natural selection is goal oriented

A

natural selection is not goal oriented, adaptations don’t occur because individuals want or need them

65
Q

misconception 5: mutations occur on purpose

A

mutations do not happen on purpose, they happen randomly due to errors in DNA and may happen to be advantageous during environment changes

66
Q

misconception 6: evolution is progressive (improvement)

A

evolution is not progressive, complex traits are often lost or simplified over time. evolution does not mean better traits

67
Q

misconception 7: higher and lower organisms

A

no hierarchy of animals, refute’s Lamarck’s ideals, organisms do not progress over time they simply adapt

68
Q

misconception 8: natural selection leads to perfection

A

natural selection most of the time adapts organisms well to their environment but not perfectly

  • traits are not always adaptive
  • fitness trade offs exist
  • traits are genetically constrained
  • traits are historically constrained
  • traits are environmentally constrained
69
Q

misconception 14: natural selection is the only process of evolution

A

natural selection is not the only process of evolution, genetic drift/gene flow/ all lead to allele frequency changes over time

70
Q

sampling error

A

occurs when allele frequencies of a chosen subset of the population are different from those in the total population

71
Q

mutation

ultimate source of variation
random with fitness
essential for evolution

A

random production of new alleles, increases genetic variation by producing new alleles, random with fitness, most mutations in coding sequences lower fitness, rarely causes changes in genotype frequencies of eukaryotes because it has such a small affect unless combined with genetic drift/flow/selection

72
Q

point mutation

A

change in a single base pair in DNA, change in nucleotide sequence occurs in DNA that encodes for protein/RNA that codes or regular expression the new allele may result in regulation of expression

73
Q

chromosome level mutation

A

a change in number or composition of chromosomes, can cause allele to loose their function or create new

74
Q

lateral gene transfer

A

transfer of genetic information from one species to another

75
Q

speciation

A

evolution of 2 species from a single ancestor, caused when gene flow is reduced or limited causing isolation

76
Q

genetic isolation

A

barrier to gene flow isolates 2 populations within a species

77
Q

genetic divergence

A

genes of two populations of a single species evolve independently of each other, if diverged new species are formed

78
Q

species

A

evolutionarily independent population or group of populations

79
Q

biological species concept

A

main criteria for identifying species is the reproductive isolation, reproductive isolation can result from prezygotic isolation and post zygotic isolation

80
Q

prezygotic isolation

A

prevent individuals of different species from mating due to temporal (time), habitats, and behavior

81
Q

post zygotic isolation

A

hybrid offspring of matings between members of different species either do not survive or do not reproduce (sterile)

82
Q

morphospecies concept

A

evolutionarily independent lineages by difference in size, shape, or other morphological features because distinguishing features are more likely to occur if populations are independent and isolated from gene flow

83
Q

polymorphic species

A

species with differing phenotypes

84
Q

cryptic species

A

differing traits other than morphology such as bird songs

85
Q

polyploid

A

created when two species hybridize, individuals can only reproduce with other polyploid individuals, but they cannot interbreed with either parent species. only in plants

86
Q

Allopolyploidy

A

state of having more than two full sets of chromosomes due to hybridization between two different species.

87
Q

Phylogenetic species

A

made up of populations that share one or more synapomorphies.The phylogenetic species concept leads to the recognition of many more species, a number of which are not easily distinguishable based on morphology.

88
Q

Sympatric speciation

A

Sympatric speciation occurs even though populations live within the same geographical area and serves as a source of new branches on the tree of life. Two types of events can initiate sympatric speciation: external events, such as disruptive selection for extreme phenotypes based on different ecological niches, and internal events, such as chromosomal mutations.

89
Q

synapomorphy

A

a trait that is found in certain groups of organisms and their common ancestors but is missing in more distant ancestors

90
Q

biological species

A

group of organisms that can reproduce, reproductive isolation between populations, don’t produce viable offspring, reproductive isolation=evolutionary independence, not applicable to asexual and difficult to assess if populations don’t overlap geographically

91
Q

morphospecies

A

morphologically distinct populations, widely acceptable, misses cryptic species and subjective

92
Q

systematics

A

discipline of biology that characterizes the relationship among all organisms on earth

93
Q

taxonomy

A

practice of describing, naming, and classifying individual species

94
Q

allopatry

A

populations that are geographically separated

95
Q

allopatric speciation

A

speciation that begins with geographic isolation, begins with dispersal and vicariance

96
Q

dispersal

A

the movement of individuals from one place to another

97
Q

vicariance

A

the physical splitting of a habitat

98
Q

biogeography

A

study of how species and populations are distributed geographically

99
Q

sympatry

A

species or populations live in the same geographic area with one another to interbreed

100
Q

niche

A

describes the range of ecological resources that a species can use and range of conditions it can tolerate

101
Q

autopolyploid

A

individuals are produced when a mutation results in a doubling of chromosome number and the chromosomes all come from the same place

102
Q

allopolyploid

A

individuals are created when parents of different species mate and then an error in mitosis occurs resulting in viable non sterile offspring with two sets of chromosomes

103
Q

reinforcement

A

natural selection for trait that prevent interbreeding among populations

104
Q

hybrid zone

A

geographic area where interbreeding occurs and hybrid offspring are common

105
Q

hybridization hypothesis

A

species fuse together or become extinct when hybrids reproduce

bio exam 2 vocabulary (3 decks)

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