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BIO - EXAM 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Contractile vacuoles

A

prevent cells from bursting as a result of the influx of excess water.

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2
Q

lysosomes

A

all answers are correct; destroy harmful bacteria engulfed by cells, merge with food vacuoles to expose them to lysosomal enzymes, help to digest worn-out or damaged organelles.

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3
Q

the golgi apparatus

A

stores, modifies, and packages proteins and lipids

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4
Q

the endosymbiosis hypothesis proposes that

A

a proto-eukaryotic cell engulfed a smaller cell, which then survived inside the larger cell to the benefit of both

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5
Q

the idea that all living things are composed of cells and that cells arise from pre-existing cells defines

A

the cell theory

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6
Q

the nuclear envelope differs from a cell membrane in that the nuclear envelope

A

is made of a double phospholipid bilayer

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7
Q

the nucleoid region of a prokaryotic cell

A

contains the cell’s DNA

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8
Q

which answer lists the two type of electron microscopes discussed in class

A

scanning and transmission

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9
Q

which of the following is almost never observed in plant cells

A

centrioles

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10
Q

while maintaining the same shape, as cell size increases

A

the volume increases faster than the surface area

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11
Q

which part of the mitochondrion shown enhances its ability to produce ATP by increasing the surface area of a mitochondrial membrane

A

structure D - the crevices or folds

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12
Q

melanocytes in the skin to have a higher than usual number of

A

ribosomes

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13
Q

describe the process by which a cell creates and releases a functional polypeptide to the external environment via the endomembrane system. be sure to explain the correct order and action of the following components: cytoplasm; endoplasmic reticulum; golgi apparatus; nucleus; ER-vesicle, Golgi-vesicle

A
  1. Nucleus. the nucleus transcribes RNA
  2. cytoplasm and endoplasmic reticulum. the RNA then goes to the cytoplasm and endoplasmic reticulum to translate into polypeptide.
    RER: proteins enter
    SER: lipids made
  3. the ER-Vesicle then transfers the hald modified-polypeptide to the golgi apparatus
  4. golgi apparatus - modifies the polypeptide and then the golgi - vesicle merge with the plasma membrane to be released or remain in the cell to serve a certain purpose
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14
Q

an animal cell will shrivel up via osmosis when placed in a ———- solution

A

hypertonic

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15
Q

diffusion is

A

the movement of solute particles from an area of high concentration to low concentration

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16
Q

glucose molecules provide energy to power the swimming motion of sperm. in this example, the sperm are changing

A

potential energy into kinetic energy

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17
Q

most of a cell’s enzymes are

A

proteins

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18
Q

osmosis is

A

diffusion of water molecules from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration

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19
Q

the mechanism by which human cells obtain LDL cholesterol particles form intercellular fluid is

A

receptor mediated enocytosis

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20
Q

the transfer of a phosphate group to a molecule or compound is called

A

phosphorylation

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21
Q

when an enzyme catalyzes a biochemical reaction it

A

lowers the activation energy of the reaction

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21
Q

which is NOT an example of cellular active transport

A

osmosis

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21
Q

which of the following is NOT an example of cellular passive transport

A

movement of ions via protein pumps

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21
Q

which part of the ATP molecule breaks free of the rest when an ATP molecule is used for energy

A

part d - the last phosphate

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22
Q

which figure depicts an animal cell placed in a solution hypotonic to the cell

A

cell A - exploding from both ends

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23
Q

a major function of glycoproteins and glycolipids in the cell membrane is to

A

allow for cell recognition

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24
Q

according to _________, energy cannot be created or destoryed

A

the first law of thermodynamics

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25
Q

what is the basic difference between exergonic and endergonic reactions

A

exergonic reactions release energy; endergonic reactions absorb it

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26
Q

by-products of cellular respiration include

A

carbon dioxide and water

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27
Q

cyanide differs from dinitrophenol in that

A

cyanide is an electron transport blocker, while dinitrophenol makes the membrane of the mitochondrion leaky to H+ ions

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28
Q

bacteria that are unable to survive in the presence of oxygen are called

A

obligate anaerobes

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29
Q

as a result of glycolysis there is a net gain of _____ ATPS

A

2

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30
Q

during cellular respiration, NADH

A

delivers its electron load to the first electron carrier molecule

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31
Q

during chemiosmosis

A

ATP is synthesized when H+ ions move through a channel inATP synthase

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32
Q

the overall equation for the cellullar respiration of glucose is

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

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33
Q

the processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration are complementary. during these energy conversion, some energy is

A

lost in the form of heat

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34
Q

which H+ ion has just passed through the inner mitochondrial membrane by diffusion

A

hydrogen ion D - going through a flask shaped memebrane, last one.

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35
Q

which step of the citric acid cycle requires both NAD+ and ADP as reactants

A

step 3

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36
Q

chloroplasts contain disklike membranous sacs arranges in stacks called

A

grana

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37
Q

Mitochondria transfer ____________ energy from ____________ to ATP; chloroplasts transform _____________ energy into the chemical energy to ATP

A

chemical….. food…….. light

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38
Q

in this drawing of a chloroplast, which structure represents the thylakoid membrane

A

structure c - the singular sacs (indivdual pancakes)

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39
Q

which of the following options lists the stages in cellular respiration in the correct order

A

glycolysis, the critic acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation

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40
Q

yeasts can produce ATP by either fermentation or oxidative phosphorylation; thus, they are

A

facultative anaerobes

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41
Q

early discoveries

A

mid 1600s - Robert Hooke, observed and described cells in cork, later 1600s - Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek, observed sperm, microorganisms, 1820s- Robert Brown, observed and named nucleus in plant cells, 1850 - Rudolf Virchow, proposed that all cells come from existing cells

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42
Q

cell theory

A

1) cell is the smallest unit of life - survive, reproduce, metabolism, respond
2) all organisms consist of 1 or more cells
3) all cells come form pre-existing cells

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43
Q

magnification

A

increase in the apparent size of an object

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43
Q

resolution

A

measure of the clarity of an image

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44
Q

light microscope

A

simple or compound

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45
Q

electron microscopes

A

transmissions EM or scanning EM

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46
Q

light microscopy (explained)

A

wavelengths of light = 400 - 750 nm
if object <1/2 wavelength, it will not be visible, resolution 200nm, magnification 1,000 x

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47
Q

electron microscopy (explained)

A

uses streams of accelerated electrons focused by magnets, resolution 2 nm (or less), magnification 100,000 x (or more)

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48
Q

minimum size

A

determined by the total size of all the molecules required for cellular activity

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49
Q

maximum size

A

limited by the need for sufficient surface area to volume ratio to carry out function

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50
Q

as cells get larger…

A

surface area and volume both increase
but volumes increases more than surface area

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51
Q

total volume

A

L x W x H

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52
Q

total surface area

A

L x W x # of sides

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53
Q

surface to volume ration

A

SA/V

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54
Q

increase sa/v ratio by

A

changing shape from round to long, narrow + folded

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55
Q

all cells have

A

plasma membrane, DNA, cytoplasm w/ ribosomes

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56
Q

plasma membrane

A

structure: phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, glycolipids, glycoproteins, sterols
function: isolates cell contents, controls what gets in and out of the cell, and receives signals

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57
Q

selectively permeable

A

lipid - soluble molecules pass through (small non-polar molecules, fat soluble molecules)
lipid - non-soluble molecules do not pass through
(large polar molecules, ions, water)

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58
Q

all cells have genetic material as DNA

A

Eukaryotes: DNA is within a membrane (nucleus)
Prokaryotes: no membrane around the DNA - region is called nucleoid

59
Q

cytoplasm with ribosomes

A

cytoplasm - fluid area inside outer plasma membrane and outside DNA region

60
Q

prokaryotic cells

A

archaea and eubacteria, generally the smallest, simplest cells, prokaryotic cells do NOT have: nucleus and membrane bound organelles

61
Q

what are in prokaryotic cells

A

plasma membrane, nucleiod, cytoplasm with ribosomes, cell wall, capsule, pili, flagella

62
Q

archaea

A

inhabitat hostile enviornments

63
Q

protein lattice

A

anchored to outer membrane to help withstand extreme conditions

64
Q

eukaryotic cells

A

usually larger than prokaryotic cells, distinguished by a true nucleus, contain both membranes and non-membranous organelle

65
Q

what are in eukaryotic cells

A

nucleus, ribosomes, endomembrane system: endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, vesicles. mitochondria, cytoskeleton

66
Q

animal cells lack:

A

cell wall, central vacuole, chloroplasts

67
Q

cell wall

A

function: provides support and protection
- never found in animal cells
- present in plant, bacterial, fungus, some protists
structure: wraps around the plasma membrane. made of cellulose and other polysaccharides

68
Q

plant cells lack:

A

centrioles, lysosomes, and often flagella

69
Q

extracellular matrix

A

glycoprotein, binds animal tissues

70
Q

tight junctions

A

seal tissue cells so no leaking. ex:gut

71
Q

anchoring junctions

A

also called desmosome, allow continual stretching, ex: skin and heart

72
Q

gap junctions

A

connect cytoplasm between cells, allows rapid transfer of substances, ex: heart

73
Q

nucleus

A

1)manufactoring
2) structure: double layer membranes with pores
3)isolate the DNA, controls what get in/out

74
Q

ribosomes

A

1)manufacturing
2) structure: two subunits that come together
3) function: makes proteins, takes mRNA –> turn into a protein

75
Q

rough ER

A

1)manufacturing
2)structure: membrane system w/ ribosomes attached
3) function: make and modify proteins, shipped to golgi apparatus

76
Q

smooth ER

A

1) manufactoring
2) structure: no ribosomes
3) function: makes lipids, shipped to golgi apparatus

77
Q

golgi apparatus

A

1) manufacturing
2) structure: stack of flattened membrane sacs with no ribosomes
3) function: receives proteins and lipids from the ER, sends out to the destination

78
Q

Lysosomes (in animals only)

A

1) Breakdown
2) structure: contains sacs enzymes
3) function: cell “eating” used for digestion, recycles damaged organelles, breaks bacteria in white blood cells

79
Q

central vacuole

A

1) breakdown
2) structure: in plant cells
3) function: has enzymes that break down waster. storage function, food, ions

80
Q

contractile vacuole

A

1) breakdown
2) structure: some protists have them
3) function: pump excess water out of cell

81
Q

peroxisomes

A

1)breakdown
2) structure: smaller but similar to lysosomes
3) function: hydrogen peroxides is broken down to H20+O2

82
Q

mitochondria

A

1) energy processing
2) structure: outer membrane, inner membrane, inter membrane space, folds called cristae, matrix - DNA and ribosomes
3) function: produces ATP (energy currency) for the cell from food - cellular respiration

83
Q

chloroplasts (in plants only)

A

1) energy processing
2) structure: inner and outer membranes, granum (stacks of membranes), stroma - fluid to surround granum, with photo - synthetic pigments
3) photosynthesis, make sugar from using solar energy
extra - also has mitochondria to break down sugar to ATP, makes their own food - but still need to break down to energy

84
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

microfilament, intermediate filament, microtubule

85
Q

microfilament

A

1) support, movement, and communication
2) structure: smallest components, composed of the protein actin
3) cell movement

86
Q

intermediate filament

A

1) support, movement, and communication
2) structure: intermediate size, not hollow, only found in animal cells
3) structure: holds cells together and maintain shape

87
Q

microtubule

A

1) support, movement, and communication
2) structure: largest component, hollow cylinders
3) function: provide support for the cell, to aid in cell division, and to provide a route for intracellular transport.

88
Q

pseudopods

A

used to capture prey

89
Q

cilia and flagella

A

move whole cells or material across the cell sruface

90
Q

functional categories of organelles

A

1) manufactoring - nucleus, ribosomes, ER, golgi
2) breakdown/storage - lysosomes, peroxisomes, vacuoles
3) energy processing - chloroplasts, mitochondria
4) support, movement, and communication - cytoskeleton, cell walls, extracellular matrix, cell junctions

91
Q

function of plasma membrane

A

forms a boundary between a living cell and its surroundings, exhibits selective permeability, controls traffic of molecules in and out

92
Q

attachment proteins

A

attach to the extracellular matrix and cytoskeleton, help support the membrane, can coordinate external and internal changes

93
Q

junction proteins

A

form intercellular junctions that attach adjacent cells

94
Q

glycoproteins

A

serve as ID tags, may be recognized by membrane proteins of other cells

95
Q

transport proteins

A

allow specific ions or molecules to enter or exit the cell

96
Q

enzymes

A

some membranes proteins are enzymes, enzymes may be grouped to carry out sequential reactions

97
Q

receptor proteins

A

signaling molecules to bind to receptor proteins, receptor proteins relay the message by activating other molecules inside the cell

98
Q

diffusion

A

the tendency for particles to spread out evenly in an available space down a concentration gradient, area of high concentration to low concentration

99
Q

non polar gases…

A

diffuse through membrane

100
Q

passive transport

A

no energy is used to diffuse them, down concentration

101
Q

active transport

A

up concentration gradient, energy is required (ATP)

102
Q

facilitated transport

A

requires a protein is it can no pass through regularly

103
Q

factors affecting diffusion rate

A

1) steepness of concentration gradient. - steeper gradient, faster diffusion
2) molecular size. - smaller molecules, faster diffusion
3) temperature. - higher temperature, faster diffusion.
4) electrical or pressure gradient - charge ions

104
Q

osmosis

A

diffusion of water across a membrane

105
Q

osmoregulation

A

water balance

106
Q

tonicity

A

tendency to gain or lose water

107
Q

isotonic solution

A

solute concentration is the same as in the cell, animal cells remain constant, plant cells becomes flaccid - not enough water

108
Q

hypotonic

A

solute concentration is lower than the cell, animal cell lyses and eventually explodes, plant cell becomes turgid - plants like

109
Q

hypertonic

A

solute concentration is higher, animal cells shrivel collapses, plant cells shrivel up - plasmolyze.

110
Q

endocytosis

A

membranes may fold inward forming, a vesicle, enclosing material from the outside, in membrane folds

111
Q

exocytosis

A

a vesicle may fuse with the membrane and expel its contents outside the cell

112
Q

which one, endocytosis or exocytosis, requires energy

A

both

113
Q

three ways endocytosis can occur

A

1) phagocytosis (“cell eating”) - eats whole cell
2) pinocytosis (“cell drinking”) - engulfs solutions
3) receptor-mediated enocytosis

114
Q

bulk transport

A

moving large molecules, or a whole group of molecules. even whole cells

115
Q

what is energy

A

the capacity to work, life depends on the fact that energy can be converted from one form to another

116
Q

kinetic energy

A

energy of motion (including heat and light)

117
Q

potential energy

A

stored (chemical and positional)

118
Q

one way flow of energy

A

1) producers capture some of the suns energy
2) cells release the energy in the sugars and capture some of the energy in the chemical bonds
3) cells release the energy and use some of it to do work in the cell
*energy becomes less and less concentrated in this process

119
Q

second law of thermodynamics

A

energy transformations increase disorder, or entropy while come energy is lost at heat

120
Q

exergonic reactions

A

releases energy, ex. burning and cellular respiration

121
Q

endergonic reactions

A

requires an input of energy from the surroundings, ex. phtotsynthesis, biosynthesis

122
Q

ATP…

A

holds chemical energy and drives cellular work

123
Q

endergonic (ATP)

A

ADP +energy —-> ATP (carrier of energy)

124
Q

exergonic (ATP)

A

ATP —–> ADP + energy

125
Q

activation energy

A

amount of energy that must be input before an exergonic reaction will proceed

126
Q

enzymes are….

A

proteins that function as biological catalysts
- increases the rate of a reaction without themselves being changed
- decrease the activation energy needed to begin a reaction

127
Q

substrate

A

a specific reactant that an enzyme acts on

128
Q

active site

A

a pocket on the enzymes surface that the substrate fits into

129
Q

induced fit

A

the way the active site changes shape to “embrace” the substrate

130
Q

organismic respiration

A

breathing

131
Q

cellular respiration

A

breakdown of sugar

132
Q

slow-twitch fibers undergo….

A

aerobic respiration, in the presence of O2, also called cellular respiration, ex - marathon runners

133
Q

fast-twitch fibers undergo…..

A

anaerobic respiration, in the absence of O2, also called fermentation, ex - sprinters

134
Q

anaerobic pathways

A

1)evolved first
2) doesn’t require oxygen
3) start with glycolysis in cytoplasm
4) completed in cytoplasm
5) small amount of ATP generated

135
Q

aerobic pathways

A

1) evolved later
2) require oxygen
3) start with glycolysis in cytoplasm
4) completed in mitochondria
5) lots of ATP generated

136
Q

substrate - level phosphorylation

A

substrate gives energy and phosphate group to ADP and makes small amount of ATP

137
Q

oxidative phosphorylation

A

the energy available to a cell is contained in the arrangement of electrons in chemical bonds, each step involve redox reactions

138
Q

oxidation

A

loss of electrons(or hydrogen atoms)

139
Q

reduction

A

addition of electrons (or hydrogen atoms)

140
Q

dehydrogenase

A

enzymes transferring electrons from H-atoms to other molecules

141
Q

cellular respiration

A

1)glycolysis
2)citric acid cylcss or krebs cycle
3) electron transport chain

142
Q

glycolysis

A

Glucose (6 C) ——> pyruvate (3 C)
happens in the cytoplasm
net ATP = 2
also produces NADH

143
Q

intermediate step

A

Pyruvate (3 C) + CoA —–> Acetyl CoA (2 C)
happens in the mitochondrial matrix
no ATP
produces CO2 and NADH

144
Q

Krebs cycle

A

Acetyl CoA (2 C) + Oxaloacetate (4 C) ——–> Citrate (6 C)
happens in the mitochondrial matrix
net ATP = 2
produces NADH, FADH2, CO2

145
Q

Electron transport chain

A
  1. electron from NADH and FADH2 transferred along chain
  2. H+ pumped across membrane to make H+ gradient
  3. H+ flow through ATP synthase
    happens in inner mitochondrial membrane
    net ATP = 28
    produces H2O
146
Q

fermentation

A

begins with glycolysis, yields 2 ATP from glycolysis, steps after glycolysis serve only to recycle NADH

147
Q

lactic acid fermentation (muscles)

A

NADH is oxidized to NAD+ ad pyruvate is reduced to lactate

148
Q

alcohol fermentation

A

brewing and baking, yeast and bacteria

149
Q

strict anaerobes

A

require anaerobic conditions to generate ATP by fermentation, poisoned by oxygen

Biology (3 decks)

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