bio/biochem Flashcards
RT-PCR, PCR, q-PCR
RT-PCR (reverse transcriptase PCR) involves still making copies of DNA, but we’re starting with mRNA, then reverse transcribing –> cDNA (complementary DNA), and it’s this DNA that we build primers for. primer will be complementary to s gene of interest, so if no copies are made, we know the gene isn’t present and thus was not transcribed, technique good for guaging protein levels since mRNA usually –> protein. q-PCR (quantitative PCR or real time PCR) is just like PCR except there’s a fluourescent dye or probe that binds to DNA and measures it’s concentration each cycle (track the number of copies in real time as opposed to waiting until the end)
coding and template strand in DNA
coding strand = sense strand. template strand = antisense strand
primers used for DNA replication and PCR
RNA primers for DNA replication; DNA primers for PCR
peritoneal cavity, perineum
peritoneal cavity is the abdominal cavity which is protected by the peritonieum (parietal lines the outside, visceral lines the organs within the cavity); perineum is the space between the anus and vagina/scrotum
functions of the pharynx, larynx, and trachea (including structure)
pharynx (throat) has mucus and cilia to trap any pathogens, larynx has our voicebox/vocal cords (folds of tissue positioned to partially block the flow of air and vibrate —> sound), epiglottis which prevents food from entering our windpipe, made of cartilage to keep our airway open. trachea is our windpipe, has cartilaginous rings to prevent it from collapsing, has cilia and mucus
blood vessels associated with the liver
hepatic portal artery brings in oxygenated blood; hepatic portal vein brings in blood that has stuff from intestine, pancreas, spleen and stomach; hepatic vein is what leaves the liver to the inferior vena cava after liver has processed everything. bile vessel is part of hepatic portal trial (carries bile to gall bladder)
what feeds into the kidney
blood enters via the renal artery which is a direct branch of the abdominal aorta (lower portion of aorta); kidney filters small hydrophilic substituents that are in the plasma; liver deals with larger substances
what does the nucleolus do? what can enter the nucleus?
nucleolus is the site where specifically rRNA is transcribed by RNA polymerase I, transcription of tRNA and mRNA occur outside of the nucleolus. molecules less than 60kDA can enter the nucleus via pores; if bigger than that, can only enter if they have a nuclear localization sequence
renin-angiotensin system
works to increase blood pressure when pressure of afferent arteriole is too low; juxtaglomerular cells are specialized smooth muscle cells of afferent arteriole, macula densa are specialized cells at distal convoluted tubule; juxtaglomerular apparatus located ‘tween afferent arteriole and distal convoluted tubule; renin is secreted to afferent arteriole which eventually activates angiotensin I, II, and II –> secretion of aldosterone by adrenal cortex
support cells of nervous system
oligodendrocytes and schwann cells myelinate neurons of CNS and PNS respectively, first can myelinate several at a time; ependymal cells bath neurons with CSF and help form the CSF, astrocytes and satellite (PNS) cells anchor the neurons in place, microglia are like marcophages; these support glia can divide unlike neurons
difference between prokaryotic flagella and eukaryotic flagella
eukaryotic have the 9+2 organization of microtubles and they do not do they whip like motion like prokaryotic flagella; where chemotaxis will guide movement/tumble
stages of spermatogenesis; where do they gain motility function
spermatagonium –> primary spermatocyte –> secondary spermatocyte –> spermatid –> spermatazoa (mature with flagella); gain motility function in epididymis
what makes the semen of sperm?
fructose from seminal vesicle, basic lubricant from prostate gland so it’s not damaged by acidic environment of vagina; lubricant from cowper’s gland (bulborethral gland) so spermatazoa can travel w/out being damaged
components of testes
semineferous tubules is where spermatogenesis occurs; leydig cells are located between the semineferous tubules and secrete testosterone in response to binding of LH; sertoli cells located in the tubules and nourish sperm during growth; mature sperm empty into lumen of semineferous tubule before going to epididymis
autophagy vs crinophagy
autophagy is when a lysosome destroys an organelle that’s been targeted for suicide; crinophagy is when the lysosome gets rid of excess secretory products (will break down the product into it’s macromolecules and release into cytoplasm, so if it was a peptide hormone, will break down into individual amino acids)
lysosomes, proteasome, endosome, vs peroxisome
lysosomes have acid hydrolases and break down things that need to be destroyed (digested antigen, infected organelle, etc. will recycle part), proteasome is the recycling bin in the nucleus and cytoplasm that destroys proteins that have been targeted for degradation via ubiquitination (will also recycle parts), endosome is the vesicle that’s formed when cell does endocytosis, peroxisomes invovled in lipid breakdown and detoxification and getting rid of radicals and peroxides, uses catylase to convert peroxide –> water and oxygen; metabolism in peroxisome will produce hydrogen peroxide as a byproduct which can be destroyed
steps of muscle contraction
1) myosin (which is an ATPase since it catalyzes hydrolysis of ATP) is cocked in high energy state with ADP and Pi
2) calcium binds to troponin which exposes binding sites for myosin –> actin
3) myosin releases the phosphate and the ADP and bends into a low energy state –> conformational change of the complex/sacromere shortens/power stroke
4) ATP binds to myosin (which at this state has nothing on it) –> unbind actin
5) ATP immediately hydrolyzes to ADP and Pi
motor end plate; what stops the muscle contraction
motor end plate is the cell membrane of the myofibril; action potential ceases when Ca2+ is ACTIVELY taken back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum which uses ATP pumps
steps of PPP; what makes it cool
cool b/c doesn’t require ATP; G6P –> 6-phosphogluconate –> ribulose 5 phosphate (first step is redox, G6Pdehydrogenase, NADPHH produced; 2nd step is another redox, we decarboxylate and form a 5 carbon molecule); now the non-oxidative phase involves ribulose5phosphate forming sugars or nucleic acids and any other sugars we need; first two steps are irreversible and non-oxidative phase has reversible steps
types of epithelium and what they do
epithelium cells line things (cavities and organs); simple epithelium are thinner, one cell layer and found in places where filtration and absorption occur (lungs, kidneys, liver); sratified epithelium is thicker and found in places that are subject to chemical/physical stress (stomach, esophagus)
chemiosmosis
pumping of protons DOWN concentration gradient as they pass through ATP synthase in ETC
