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Bio 2nd Exam Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Hydrolysis?

A

○ Decomp. By insertion of water molecules between certain bonds of the macromolecules

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2
Q

What is Ingestion

A

Occurs when we take food through our mouth

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3
Q

What is Digestion

A

○ Breakdown of larger pieces of food into smaller pieces
○ Can be mechanical or chemical

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4
Q

What is Mechanical Digestion?

A

Primarily by chewing in mouth and by wavelike contractions of the smooth muscles in the stomach

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5
Q

What is Chemical Digestion?

A

Digestive enzymes all have pH ranges at which most effective
Compartmentalization of the digestive tract helps establish these ideal pH ranges.

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6
Q

What is Peristalsis?

A

Wavelike contractions that propel substances along a tubular structure such as the esophagus

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7
Q

What is a Lumen?

A

Cavity inside any tubular structure, such as the lumen of the digestive tract

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8
Q

What is Mucosa

A

Membrane that lines tubes and body cavities that open to the outside of the body; also called mucous membrane.

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9
Q

What is Diverticulosis

A

A condition in which portions of the digestive tract mucosa have pushed through other layers of the tract, forming pouches where food may collect.

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10
Q

What are the two types of Digestion?

A

Intracellular
Extracellular

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11
Q

Examples of Intracellular Digestion

A

Amoeba
White blood cells

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12
Q

How does intracellular digestion work along with end product?

A

Process is endocytosis
§ End product is food vacuole

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13
Q

Examples of Extracellular Digestion

A

Homo sapiens

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14
Q

How does Extracellular Digestion work?

A

Requires both a digestive and circulatory system (much more complex)

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15
Q

Less Complex organisms

A

○ Protozoans
○ Flatworms
○ Sea Anemones
○ Roundworms
Earthworms

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16
Q

What is the Oral Region?

A

Site of ingestion

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17
Q

What are the parts of the Oral Region?

A

Mouth, Teeth and tongue

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18
Q

Smaller parts of the Oral Region?

A

○ Salivary Glands
§ Secret Salvia
§ Contains Salivary Amylase
□ First enzyme
○ Teeth
§ Mostly cosmetic today
○ Tongue
Taste buds

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19
Q

Esophagus

A

Peristalsis

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20
Q

Parts of the Stomach

A

Gastroesophageal sphincter
Duodenum

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21
Q
  1. Functions of Stomach
A
  1. Parietal cells -> Secrete -> HCl (pH of 1 -> 2)
    ○ Functions of Hydrochloric Acid
    § Kills bacteria
    § Denatures protein (Alters both the structure and physical properties)
    Activates Pepsin
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22
Q
  1. Functions of Stomach
A
  1. Chief cells -> secrete -> Pepsinogen -> (in HCl) -> Pepsin (hydrolyses Protein)
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23
Q
  1. Functions of Stomach
A
  1. Epithelial Cells -> Secrete -> Mucus
    i. Provides protection of stomach cells from digestion (life span of only a few days)
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24
Q

Additional Functions of Stomach

A

○ Absorption of:
§ Alcohol
§ Some prescription Drugs

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25
Q

First two secretions of the Pancreas and what they do

A

§ Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
□ Changes pH of chyme from Acid to Base (alkaline)
§ Lipase
□ Hydrolyses fats (lipids) to: Glycerol & fatty acids

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26
Q

Last 3 secretions of the Pancreas and what they do

A

§ Proteases
□ (old names Trypsin & Chymotrypsin)
□ Digestion of Proteins to: Amino Acids
§ Carbohydrases
□ Change complex sugars to simple sugars (under the influence of Insulin from the Pancreas)
□ Diabetes: Type A, Type B
§ Nucleases
□ Hydrolyze RNA & DNA to Nucleotides & Nitrogenous bases

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27
Q

Liver

A

○ Gallbladder secretes Bile
○ Bile
§ Serves to emulsify Fats (lipids)
Stores glucose as glycogen

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28
Q

Small intestine

A

○ Duodenum
§ First 8-10 in
○ Length of approximately 18ft
○ Surface area of almost 200 square meters
○ Final Digestion and absorption of the food stuffs

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29
Q

Large Intestine

A

○ Re-absorption of water
○ Storage of waste material until defecation

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30
Q

Anorexia Nervosa

A

§ Self-imposed starvation

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31
Q

Bulimia Nervosa

A

§ Overeating followed by self-induced vomiting

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32
Q

Muscle Dysmorphia

A

Preoccupation with underdeveloped body

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33
Q

Peptic Ulcers

A

○ Both genetic and life style influenced
§ Helicobacter pylori are bacteria that can cause an infection in the stomach.

Reason for: Colon Cancer, Diarrhea, Dysentery

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34
Q

Colon Cancer

A

Prevention with high fiber diet
Broccoli, salads, whole grains etc.

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35
Q

Diarrhea

A

Traveler’s diarrhea or Montezuma’s revenge

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36
Q

Dysentery

A

Amoebic dysentery - protozoan infection (spread by houseflies)

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37
Q

Two noteworthy problems about milk

A

§ High butterfat content
□ Triglycerides found in milk
§ Lactose intolerance
□ Primary sugar in milk
□ One cannot digest dairy products

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38
Q

Soy Milk

A

□ Contains about the same proportion of protein as cow’s milk
□ Is there an advantage to drinking soy milk?
® Yes
® More healthy than animal fats

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39
Q

Cellular Respiration

A
  • Process by which the chemical energy stored in food (glucose) is converted into usable energy
    • ADP -> “ATP” (in Mitochondria)
      ATP -> ADP + Energy (in Muscle Tissue)
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40
Q

Normal Cellular respiration

A

○ Takes place in Mitochondrion
○ Uses Oxygen
○ Produces 36 ATP’s from the glucose molecule
38% efficient

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41
Q

ATP

A

○ Stored chemical energy (glucose) Is converted to mechanical work (by muscles)
○ Different pathways of pyruvic Acid
§ Ethyl Alcohol
Latic Acid

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42
Q

Latic Acid Fermentation

A

○ Occurs in overworked muscle tissue
○ Pyruvic acid (3 carbons) -> Lactic Acid (3 carbons) + energy
○ Produces an Oxygen debt that must be repaid later
Only 7% efficient

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43
Q

Alcohol Fermentation

A

○ Occurs in yeast cells
○ 13% efficient
Pyruvic Acid (3 carbons) -> ethanol (C2H5OH) + CO2

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44
Q

Aerobic respiration

A

Cellular respiration in cells

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45
Q

Anaerobic Respiration

A

Bacteria such as tetanus, gas gangrene & botulism

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46
Q

Human Heart

A

○ Weights 250-350 gms
○ 72 beats/minute
2.5 billion times/lifetime

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47
Q

Function of Circulatory system

A

○ Delivers nutrients and O2 to individual cells
○ Remove the by-products of digestion and cellular respiration from individual cells:
§ Nitrogenous waste -> Kidneys
§ CO2-> lungs
○ Temperature Regulation
○ Transports hormones from the site of production to their respective target cells
§ Testosterone - from the testes
§ Estrogen - from the ovaries
§ Growth Hormone - from the Pituitary Gland
○ Penis erection in some mammals such as H. sapiens

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48
Q

Lymphatic System

A

○ Organ system consisting of lymphatic vessels and lymphatic organs that transport lymph and lipids; aids the immune system

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49
Q

Two types of Circulatory systems

A

Closed and open system

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50
Q

Closed system

A

§ Blood is contained within the vessels
§ Ex. Vertebrates - including H. sapiens
§ Heart -> Artery -> Capillaries -> Vein -> Heart

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51
Q

Open System

A

§ Blood comes in direct contact with the cells
§ Ex. Grass hopper
Heart -> Artery -> Blood Cavity -> Vein -> Heart

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52
Q

Chambered hearts examples

A

○ Fish- two chambered heart
○ Amphibian - three chambered heart
○ Reptile - modified three chambered heart
○ Birds & Mammals - four chambered heart

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53
Q

Systems of the Heart

A

Coronary system
Pulmonary System
Systemic System

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54
Q

Coronary System

A

§ Heart and its blood supply (coronary artery)

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55
Q

Pulmonary system

A

§ Includes:
□ Pulmonary artery
□ Lungs
□Pulmonary vein

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56
Q

Systemic System

A

§ Aorta
§ Capillaries
§ Vena Cava
□ (superior & inferior)

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57
Q

Four Chambered heart

A

○ Two Atria
§ Thin walled
○ Two Ventricles
§ Thich walled
○ Two valves in between
§ Tricuspid valve
§ Bicuspid valve
(AKA mitral valve)

58
Q

Heart murmur

A

Caused by several childhood diseases

59
Q

IMPORTANT NODES

A

Sinoatrial node (pacemaker)
Atrioventricular node

60
Q

Systole

A

Contracted phase of the heart

61
Q

Arteries

A

○ Red vessels =↑ in oxygen
Blue vessels =↑ in Carbon dioxide

62
Q

Blue Baby

A

○ Cyanosis
Fetal heart basically by-passes the pulmonary circuit until partition (birth)

63
Q

Blood flow

A

○ Heart -> Artery -> Capillaries -> Vein -> Heart

64
Q

Arteries

A

carry blood away from the heart
§ Elastic - absorb pressure from the heart
Lack valves
○ These may harden with age - causing ↑ in blood pressure
§ Hypertension
□ Affected by diet among other factors

65
Q

Capillaries

A

Width of the red blood cells and serve the individual cells

66
Q

Veins

A

§ Carry blood back to the heart
Contain valves

67
Q

Angioplasty

A

Balloon in clogged arteries

68
Q

Stent

A

§ a perforated tube is placed in the artery
§ Meth?

69
Q

Bypass Surgery

A

replace damaged arteries w/veins from the patient’s own legs

70
Q

Transplants

A

Difficult to find suitable donor and problems with the patient’s own immune system.

71
Q

Baboon heart

A

Case of “Baby Jane/Fae” in California 1980s

72
Q

Artificial heart

A

Problem with damage to the patient’s own blood cells

73
Q

Blood

A

○ Average person has ≈ 5 liters (≈ 5 quarts)
○ ≈ 55% is Plasma (which is 90% water)
○ Rest is mostly plasma proteins

74
Q

Albumin

A

Homeostasis & water recovery

75
Q

Globulins

A

Contribute to immune system

76
Q

Fibrinogen

A

Functions in blood clotting

77
Q

Clotting Mechanism

A

○ Damaged cells -> release -> thromboplastin
○ Prothrombin -> Activates -> Thrombin
Fibrinogen -> activates -> fibrin threads

78
Q

Erythrocytes

A

○ Red blood cells
○ RBC’s
○ Life span ≈ 4 months
Produced by the marrow of the long bones

79
Q

Hemoglobin

A

§ Iron (Fe)
Absorbs 99 times the Oxygen as plasma

80
Q

Problems with Erythrocytes

A

○ Leukemia
○ Radiation Sickness
Bone marrow transplants

81
Q

Why is there a differences between life expectancy of males and females?

A

§ Varying levels of Iron (Fe) in the blood of males and females

82
Q

Sources of Iron in our diet

A

○ Red Meat
○ Some organs
§ Liver
○ Anemia

83
Q

Hadacol

A

○ Vitamins B1, B2, Iron and Niacin
○ 12 percent alcohol
○ Press release in 1951 AMA
66 times the dose of modern iron supplements

84
Q

Leucocytes

A

○ White blood Cells (WBC)
○ Less than 0.1% of blood
○ Also produced by the bone marrow
Provide a defense against foreign invaders of the blood exhibit amoeba-like feeding - “Phagocytosis” - endocytosis

85
Q

Rx of two different diseases/infections

A

○ Sexual transmitted Disease (STD)
§ Gonorrhea
○ Rx is an injection of an Antibiotic
○ Bitten by a rabid dog, skunk, bat, etc.
Rx is a vaccination

86
Q

How were antibiotics first produced?

A

○ First produced by Fungi
§ Compete naturally with bacteria
Directly attack antigent

87
Q

Some examples of fungi?

A

○ Terramycin
§ Earth mold
○ Penicillin
Isolated from the mold Penicillium

88
Q

Antibiotic Resistance

A

Due to overuse & misuse some bacterial strains have become resistant

89
Q

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

A

§ Superbug
Does not respond to Rx with many antibiotics

90
Q

Vietnam War

A

○ 46 deaths
○ Emergence of chloroquine-resistant P.Vivax
Quinine

91
Q

Leprosy

A

○ Bacterial infection
Carried by armadillos

92
Q

Axillary Lymph nodes (Lymphatic System)

A

Located in the underarm region

93
Q

Red bone marrow (Lymphatic System)

A

Site for the origin of all types of blood cells

94
Q

Thymus

A

Lymphatic tissue where T lymphocytes mature and learn to tell “self” from “nonself”

95
Q

Network of fluid-carrying vessels & associated organs flow of lymph is on-way

A

Lymphatic system
Vessels have valves - but no pump

96
Q

Lymphocytes

A

Defense against pathogens

97
Q
A
98
Q

Types of lymphocytes

A

B lymphocytes
T lymphocytes
Both function in the production of Antibodies which will attack foreign proteins known as Antigens

99
Q

B lymphocytes

A

§ B-cells
§ First found in Bursa (joints) of chickens
§ Formation in H. Sapiens is not entirely understood but they mature in the bone marrow

100
Q

T lymphocytes

A

T- cells
produced by the Thymus gland (chest) and in bone marrow

101
Q

Similar of Lymphatic and Circulatory Systems

A

§ It has valves
□ Similar to both the heart and the veins
§ Produces cells
□ Lymphocytes instead of RBC’s and WBC’s

102
Q

Differences of Lymphatic and Circulatory Systems

A

§ Open system
§ Does not have a pump
§ Does not have capillaries
It does not function in the exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

103
Q

Classic example of diseases

A

Smallpox and Cowpox in Europe during the 1700’s

104
Q

Primary immune response

A

Often very slow - may take days, weeks or longer for Antibody levels to become high enough

105
Q

Secondary immune response

A

Occurs very quickly & provides immediate protection

106
Q

Well known Viral infections

A

○ HIV- Human immunodeficiency Virus
○ AIDS- Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
§ In 2005 - AIDS killed an estimated 2.4 to 3.3 million lives
§ One does not die directly of AIDS - but instead one dies of some other infection
○ Influenza
○ Swine flue
○ H1N1
○ West Nile & Zika viruses
§ Carried by mosquitoes (vector)
○ Polio (poliomyelitis)
Monkeypox

107
Q

Categories of Risk

A

○ High Risk
§ Poorly developed when young
§ Common in the elderly
○ Low Risk
§ Best developed when mature
○ System will begin to fail with time and/or age often requires a “booster”
§ Tetanus shot
Annual flu shot

108
Q

Polio Vaccine

A

§ Salk Vaccine (injected) in early 1950s
§ Sabin Vaccine (oral) in late 1850s
§ Completely eradicated in the Americas by 1994
350,000 cases in 1988 - down to 1,652 in 2007

109
Q

Flu Pandemic

A

§ Estimates of 50-100 million deaths worldwide
§ In the US
Estimates of 500,000 - 675, 000 deaths

110
Q

Ebola

A

§ Spread by exchange of body fluids
§ Epidemic in SW Africa
□ (Guinea, Liberia & Sierra Leone)
§ Recent death in Dallas - Spring 2014
§ Mr. Duncan had shutdown of organ systems
Two nurses also diagnosed with Ebola

111
Q

Enterovirus (EV-D68)

A

§ Colorado School Children fall of 2014
§ Ages 1-18
§ Polio-like virus
May have been introduced by immigrants from El Salvador, Honduras & Nicaragua

112
Q

Zika

A

§ Microcephaly in unborn children
Summer & fall of 2016

113
Q

Coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19)

A

§ When viewed under a microscope, Covid had a crown-like structure.

114
Q

Short History of Recent vaccines

A

○ Modified or quick-kill process
○ Rendered the live virus ineffective
○ The immune system to produce own antibodies
Early polio vaccines was not completely deactivated giving polio to children

115
Q

Types of vaccines

A

○ MLV’s
§ Killed Vaccines
○ Live-attenuated vaccines
§ Get rid of parts
Inactivated vaccines

116
Q

COVID Vaccine

A

○ None of the nucleic acids of original virus are used

Use mRNA (messenger RNA) to induce body to produce its own antibodies in place of the original virus template

117
Q

Advantages of COVID Vaccine

A

§ Don’t use the original viral template
Allows researchers to “re-program” the mRNA sequence to respond to any new variant such as “Delta variant”

118
Q

New variants of COVID

A

Mutation that originates and thrives in a region with little or no medical facilities

119
Q

Other medications used for COVID Rx

A

○ Remdesivir
§ Broad-spectrum antiviral medication
○ Hydroxychloroquine
§ Malaria Rx
○ Ivermectin
§ Anti-parasite for horses
○ Merck
§ Experimental pill for people sick with COVID19
A pill taken at home

120
Q

Childhood immunizations

A

○ DPT Vaccine (or some variant)
Diphtheria - Pertussis (whooping cough) - Tetanus (Lockjaw)

121
Q

Tetanus

A

§ Causative agent
□ Anaerobic bacteria
□ 40-50 cases/year reported in US
Worldwide - 500,00 to million/year mostly in new born children

122
Q

Excretion

A

Elimination of metabolic waste arising from the digestion of proteins

123
Q

Digestion of protiens

A

○ Known as Deamination
Ammonia converted to Urea and flushed from body by a process known as urination

124
Q

Urine

A

○ Produced in Kidney -> Ureter -> Bladder -> Urethra
○ Kidney stones & STD’s

125
Q

Nephron

A

§ Basic unit of the kidney
Blood pressure of 70 mm/Hg (most capillaries have only 30 mm/Hg)

126
Q

Loop of the Nephron

A

§ Functions in water recovery
Very long in some desert mammals such as kangaroo rats

127
Q

Hemodialysis

A

§ More commonly known as Dialysis
§ Rx for renal failure
□ Uses semi-permeable membrane
§ 3 to 5 hours required - 2 to 3 times a week
§ 240 Americans on dialysis die every day
§ Wait can be as long as 5- 10 years.

128
Q

Kidney transplants

A

○ Most common organ transplanted
○ One year survival rates
○ 97% if from close relative
○ 90% if from a non-relative
○ Like heart transplants rejection is a problem
○ ~25,000/year in the US
○ Research underway for using kidney transplants from pig

129
Q

Xenotransplantation

A

Use of animal organs instead of human organs in human transplant patients

130
Q

Enlarged Prostate

A

○ BPH
§ Benigin Prostatic Hyperplasia
○ Prostate Cancer 2nd most common Cancer in men
○ Not a killer 98% survival rate
Lung Cancer is most common and #1 killer

131
Q

Respiration

A

○ Gaseous exchange of an organism with its environment
○ Primary concern is with O2 and CO2
○ Not to be confused with Breathing

132
Q

Lower Respiration Tract

A

Trachea
Bronchus
Bronchioles
Lung
Alveoli
Diaphragm

133
Q

Trachea

A

passage of air to bronchi

134
Q

Bronchus

A

Passage of air to lungs

135
Q

Bronchioles

A

Passage of air to alveoli

136
Q

Lung

A

Gas exchange

137
Q

Alveoli

A

§ Smaller air sacs
Site of gas exchange

138
Q

Diaphragm

A

§ Responsible for inhaling and exhaling
Vagus nerve

139
Q

Lungs (Breathing)

A

○ Normal Exchange - ~ 500cc
○ Maximum exchange - ~1200cc
○ Having the wind knocked out of you
○ Coming up from a SCUBA dive
○ Hiccoughs
○ Chest Puncture Wounds

140
Q

Smoking

A

○ Emphysema & Lung Cancer
○ Secondary smoke
○ Asbestos workers
○ 480,000 deaths/year

141
Q

Smoking while pregnant

A

§ Increase in miscarriages and stillbirths
§ Decrease in weight of the infant
§ Infant will be twice as susceptible to respiratory infections

142
Q
A

Bio (4 decks)

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