bio Flashcards
enzyme graphs
temp, pH - normal curved peaks
substrate conc - plateaus like the photosynthesis graphs
enzyme conc - slowly rises like the other graphs then completely drops
starch test
iodine, orange to black
sugars test (includes glucose)
add Benedict’s reagent then boil in a water bath, blue to red precipitate
proteins test
add Biuret reagent then shake, blue to purple
lipids test
emulsion test add ethanol, then water, clear to milky
breakdown of food
proteins - amino acids
carbs - simple sugars
glucose - C6H12O6
lipids - 1 glycerol, 3 fatty acids
respiration units
aerobic - 32 ATP
anaerobic - 2 ATP
photosynthesis stages
stage 1 (light dependent) - light energy splits water into hydrogen ions and oxygen gas
stage 2 (independent) - carbon dioxide gas combines with the hydrogen ions to make glucose
diffusion
net movement of particles through a semi-permeable membrane from a high concentration to a low concentration down the concentration gradient
active transport
movement of particles across a membrane from a low concentration to a high concentration against the concentration gradient using ATP released during respiration
osmosis
net movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from a high water concentration to a low water concentration down a concentration gradient
states of a cell with osmosis
animal: lysis (bursting), crenation (dried up)
plant: turgid (swelling), flaccid (dry)
mitosis 1st phase
interphase - DNA replication
difference in embryonic and adult stem cells
pluripotent - unlimited
multipotent - limited
types of blood vessels
arteries -> arterioles -> capillaries -> venules -> veins
normal nervous system
stimulus -> receptor -> sensory neurone -> spinal cord -> brain -> spinal cord -> motor neurone -> effector -> response
relay nervous system
stimulus -> receptor -> sensory neurone -> relay neurone (reaches spine but not brain) -> motor neurone -> effector -> response
neurones
connection between neurones is synapses
direction of impulse - dendrites to axon
cerebrum
big part for all complex behaviour (learning, memory and personality)
cerebellum
section under cerebrum next to medulla (posture balance and involuntary movement)
medulla
long stem at the bottom controls automatic actions (breathing, heart rate), oldest and most basic part
hypothalamus
small section in between medulla and cerebrum near pituitary gland, homeostasis (temperature and water regulation)
pituitary gland
sticks out into hypothalamus stores and releases all major hormones
frontal lobe
very front (decision making, reasoning, planning, emotions)
parietal lobe
right behind frontal lobe (orientation, movement, sensation, memory)
occipital lobe
very back of brain (processes all information from eyes)
temporal lobe
under frontal lobe (processes auditory information + memory)
eye from front to back
cornea (transparent bit of sclera in front of eye to let light in)
sclera (white outer layer, protects eye)
aqueous humour
iris (controls size of pupil which is a hole)
lens (held by suspensory ligaments and ciliary muscles)
vitreous humour
retina (contains rods and cones)
optic nerve (also where blind spot is)
bright light reaction
smaller pupils/ pupils contraction
radial muscles outside relax
circular muscles inside contract
radial and circular are antagonistic
DIM LIGHT IS OPPOSITE
Close objects reaction
ciliary muscles contract, suspensory ligaments relax, lens more convex (fat)
FAR OBJECTS IS OPPOSITE
long sighted
(hyperopia) - weak lense, short eyeball, behind not on, convex () converging
SHORT SIGHTED (MYOPIA) IS OPPOSITE
period timeline
menstruation 0-4 days and 28 days onwards
ovulation 12-16 days
body hot reaction
erector muscles relax, hairs lie down, lots of sweat made and evaporate (transfers energy from skin to environment), vasodilation, more blood to surface, more energy to surroundings
body cold reaction
opposite of HOT, hairs stand to make an insulating layer of air, vasoconstriction, shivering (muscles contract automatically requiring respiration which transfers energy to heat the body)
if glucose is too high
insulin from pancreas
insulin goes to liver (along with glucose)
liver turns glucose into glycogen
if glucose too low
glucagon from pancreas
glucagon goes to liver
liver turns glycogen into glucose
water balance
water gain - less ADH - less water reabsorbed
water loss - more ADH - more water reabsorbed
excretion organ system
diaphragm
liver produces urea
aorta on left side (in diagram on right), connected to renal artery (brings unfiltered blood to kidneys) connected to left kidney
whatever comes out of the blood goes through the ureters to the bladder
goes out of the body through urethra (controlled by a ring of muscle)
filtered blood goes to the heart through renal vein (connected to vena cava, opposite side to artery and aorta)
kidney structure
capsule - outside membrane of kidney (keeps shape/protects it)
cortex - outer part
medulla - inner part
nephrons in cortex and medulla (top in cortex, bottom like loop of henle in medulla)
nephron structure
renal artery goes to afferent arteriole (big) to glomerulus
glomerulus surrounded by bowman’s capsule (site of ultrafiltration)
efferent arteriole (small) connects glomerulus to proximal convoluted tubule
proximal convoluted tubule (site of selective reabsorption)
goes to loop of Henlé surrounded by capillaries (salt and water regulation)
goes to distal convoluted tubule
to collecting duct (waste/urine extracted from blood collected here and goes to bladder)
B4 pyramids
biomass - bar represents mass of all organisms
of numbers - bar represents number of organisms
efficiency of biomass transfer - literally just normal percentages
nutrient cycle definition
process of materials being passed between abiotic and biotic components of an ecosystem
the nutrient cycle
Sunlight ABSORBED by producers:
- Producers DIGESTED by consumers
- Producers DIE for decomposers
- Consumers can DIE for decomposers too
All dead material is DECOMPOSED by decomposers
- Nutrients RELEASED back into environment
nitrogen cycle
NITRATES in soil DENITRIFIED into N2 in air, lighting (energy) + NITROGEN FIXING put back into soil
NITRATES in soil ABSORBED by plants, EATEN by animals
- Die -> decompose -> ammonia
- Excrete -> ammonia
AMMONIA NITRIFIED into NITRITES (poisonous), NITRIFIED again into NITRATES
(reverse can happen with denitrification)
the different types of nitrogen cycle bacteria/organisms
Nitrogen fixing: nitrogen -> nitrates
Nitrifying: ammonia -> nitrates
Denitrifying: nitrates -> nitrogen gas/nitries/ammonia
decomposers - microorganisms
detritivores - small animals
meiosis
1ST STAGE
1. chromosomes copied
2. line up in middle in pairs (1 mum, 1 dad)
3. genetic recombination
4. pulled apart to poles
5. cell divides into two
2ND STAGE
1. chromosomes in each cell line up
2. chromosomes pulled apart in in half to poles
3. cell splits into 2, so 4 haploid cells in total
Mendel
1866, 1st, peas, characteristics passed on through dominant or recessive hereditary units from parents
darwin and wallace
Darwin - Galapagos Islands, finches, adapted beaks and food (came up with the theory of natural selection)
Wallace - butterflies and their colours (came up with the evidence for natural selection)
classification orders
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
scientific name is Species, Genus
genetic engineering steps
- identification of desired gene’s (example insulin)
- restriction enzymes cuts open desired gene makes mRNA
- reverse transcription enzymes using free nucleotides they’re gonna pair the mRNA with DNA polymerase
- leaves sticky ends (unpaired bases) on gene
- multiplication of this gene in thermocycler (Polymerase chain reaction PCR)
- same restriction enzymes cuts open bacteria (the vector) to make a bacterial plasmid
- marker gene and desired gene will be added to the bacterial plasmid making it a recombinant plasmid
- ligase enzymes uses sticky ends to glue everything together making transgenic bacteria
- bacterium allowed to multiply (called culturing)
- insulin is extracted and sold
structure of leaf
- waxy cuticle layer (waterproof), prevents water loss, prevents water collecting therefore prevents fungal pathogens/mould (thick for cacti, thin for aquatic plants)
- upper epidermis (transparent to allow light through)
- palisade cells (site of photosynthesis)
- spongy mesophyll (air pockets to allow gas exchange
- in gaps of spongy mesophyll is vascular bundle
- lower epidermis
- stomata controlled by guard cells
scab formation
skin cut, bleeds
collagen produced
collagen production attracts platelets
platelets exposure to outside turns them sticky
when sticky, they convert fibrinogen to fibrin
RBCs get trapped in fibrin
forms blood clot
clot hardens, scab forms
scab keeps skin clean, gives time to heal
scab falls off
immune response
2 TYPES OF WBCs
phagocytes
• produces enzymes that breakdown pathogens so they’re no longer harmful
• they eat them, it’s called phagocytosis
lymphocytes:
• produces antitoxins to fight bacteria toxins
• produces proteins that bind onto pathogen’s antigens, called antibodies, to signal to phagocytes to eat this pathogen, have B memory cells
relay neurone structure
dendrites, dendron goes into cell body/nucleus, axon goes out cell body/nucleus, firework
motor neurone structure
sperm but neurone, head is cell body nucleus and dendrites, tail is axon, myelin sheath
sensory neurone structure
like motor but head in middle, section to head is dendron, section away from head is axon
mitosis 2nd phase
prophase - DNA condenses into chromosomes, nucleus membrane breaks down
mitosis 3rd phase
metaphase - chromosomes line up in centre, centrioles go to poles, spindle fibres form
mitosis 4th phase
anaphase - spindle fibres contract, pull apart chromosomes to opposite poles
mitosis 5th phase
telophase - chromosomes go opposite poles, nucleus membrane forms around new nucleus
mitosis 6th and last phase
cytokinesis - organelles in cytoplasm split between both cells, cytoplasm splits between cells, 2 identical cells form
Miescher
1869, 2nd, acidic substance in nucleus (DNA), called nuclein found
Avery
1944 3rd, genes are made up of DNA and can be transferred between generations
Chargoff
1950 4th, discovers DNA base pairs
Wilkins, Rosalind Franklin
1952 5th: imaged DNA with x-rays
Watson, Crick
1953 6th: found DNA double helix
1953 - 2000:
genetic engineering developed/identified genes causing specific diseases
2003 and onwards
2003: human genome project complete
2003 +: research
