Bio 120 Final Flashcards
3 domains of life on a phylogenetic tree
- Bacteria
- Eucarya
- Archaea
defining features of living organisms
-cells
-replication
-information
-energy
-evolution
laws, theories, and hypotheses compare to each other?
Law: explains how something works
Theory: an explanation that is supported by wide body of evidence
Hypotheses: proposed and testable explanation
elements of a scientific experiment that allow us to test
hypotheses
-a normal group
-experimental conditions
-test was repeated
relationship between atomic numbers and mass numbers
for an element
Atomic #: number of protons in the atom
Mass #: number of protons and neutrons
meant by the average mass number for an
element
the naturally occurring isotopes based on their abundance
covalent and ionic bonds compare
Covalent: unpaired electrons are shared by 2 atoms
Ionic: attraction between oppositely charged ions
polar vs. nonpolar
determined by the number of protons and the distance of the valence shell from the nucleus
kinds of interactions can occur between 2 different molecules
hydrophobic interactions
monomer that comes together to make proteins
amino acids
different functional groups are found in this monomer
-amino fun. group
-carboxyl fun. group
part of this monomer confers its individuality compared to the
others
side chain
tell what chemistry it has (4 steps)
-side chain have a neg. charge
-side chain have a pos. charge
-side chain uncharged, oxygen atom?
-if answers are all no then…
call the bonds that form between the different monomers
of a protein
peptide bond
difference between a condensation reaction and a
hydrolysis reaction
Condensation: water is let out
Hydrolysis: water is let in
different forces contribute to the different structural hierarchies of
protein structure
hydrogen, ionic, hydrophobic interactions, disulfide bond
two types of nucleic acids we have in our cells
- DNA
- RNA
monomer that comes together to make nucleic acids
nucleotide
different functional groups are found in this monomer
phosphate group, carbon sugar and nitrogenous
bonds that form between the different
monomers of a protein
peptide bond
information was critical for Watson and Crick when they
published their structure of DNA
-that DNA was double stranded
-in a 5>3 order
differences between RNA and DNA
RAN has sugar(single strand), DNA does not have sugar(double strand)
molecule is most
likely the first “living” molecule and why
RNA: info. processing, replication, evolution
naming strategy for carbohydrate molecules
number of carbon atoms
difference between a monosaccharide, disaccharide,
polysaccharide
Mon.: 1 sugar
disa: 2 sugars
Poly: many sugars
special about carbohydrates that makes them “energy
molecules”
how easily they can be broken down in the body for sugar
common polysaccharides we learned and what are their
functions
starch(energy store in plants), cellulose(structural support in plant walls) and glycogen(energy store for animals)
main forms of lipids found in cells
steroids, fats, phospholipids
special about the major lipid found in cell membranes
hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail
plasma membrane organized
phospholipid bilayer, proteins, carbohy., cholesterol, glycolipids
passive vs. active transport
Passive: move with the gradient(low>high)
Active: move against their gradient( high>low)
selective permeability mean and what factors can influence
membrane permeability
-Allows certain molecules to pass blocking others
-size, polarity, charge
hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic mean and what
happens to cells if placed into each one
Hyper: concentration is higher outside the cell. water will move out of the cell. cell will shrink
Hypo: concentr. lower outside. water will move into cell. cell will expand
Isotonic: concentr. is equal. no water movement. cell size remain same
major differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells
Prokaryotic: smaller, chromosomes are in nucleoid region, fewer distinct organelles
Eukaryotic: larger, chromsomes in nucleus, larger # of organelles
specialized functions of each organelle in eukaryotic
cells
Nucleus: Stores genetic material (DNA) and controls cellular activities.
Mitochondria: Generates energy for the cell through cellular respiration, often called the “powerhouse of the cell”.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): Synthesizes proteins, particularly those destined for secretion, due to the presence of ribosomes on its surface.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): Synthesizes lipids, detoxifies substances, and stores calcium ions.
Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids received from the ER.
Lysosomes: Breaks down waste materials and cellular debris using digestive enzymes.
Peroxisomes: Breaks down fatty acids and certain toxins, producing hydrogen peroxide which is then neutralized within the organelle.
Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis, translating mRNA into amino acid chains.
Cytoskeleton: Provides structural support, helps with cell movement, and anchors organelles within the cell.
Centrioles: Involved in cell division by organizing microtubules during mitosis.
Chloroplasts (Plant cells only): Capture light energy from the sun and convert it into chemical energy through photosynthesis.
endosymbiotic theory
bacteria was engulfed and mutually beneficial relationship evolved
cells can target proteins to different areas such as the
nucleus or destinations after processing in the endomembrane
system
sorting signals with the proteins amnio acid sequence, helps guide them through the endomembrane
major cytoskeletal components and what are their
composition and functions
Actin filaments(microfilaments): cytokinesis(animals), cytoplasmic(plants)
Intermediate filaments: break up and re due the nuclear envelope
Microtubules: Vesicle transport
major components of plant and animal extracellular
matrices
Plant: cable like microfibrils, long strands of cellulose, crisscrossed, moist
Animals: cable like, flexible, attracts water and forms a gel
cells in different animal and plant tissue be connected
together and/or communicate
intercellular junctions
the cell respond to lipid soluble vs. insoluble hormones for
long distance cell communication
Lipid: intracellular receptors inside the cell
Insoluble: receptors on the cell membrane(signal transduction)
major ways that signal transduction can happen
G-protein and Enzyme linked receptors
terms H, S, and G refer
H: Enthalpy: energy in a molecule
S: Entropy: amount of disorder
G: Gibbs: reaction is spontaneous or needs energy
enzyme interacts with a substrate
binds at the active site
uncatalyzed and an enzyme-catalyzed
reaction
Uncatalyzed: occurs without help, goes at slower rate
Enzyme-Catalyzed: speed up the reaction by lowering the activation energy required to reach site
ways that enzyme reactions can be regulated
-Cofactors: inorganic ions
-Coenzymes: organic molecules
-Prosthetic groups: non amino acid atoms
makes ATP so special
power cellular processes by transferring a phosphate group to another molecule
steps of each pathway occurring during cellular
respiration
1.Glycolysis—A six-carbon glucose
is broken down into two three-
carbon pyruvate
2. Pyruvate processing—Each
pyruvate is oxidized to form acetyl
CoA
3. Citric acid cycle—Each acetyl CoA
is oxidized to CO2
4. Electron transport and oxidative
phosphorylation—Electrons
move through a transport chain
and their energy is used to set up
a proton gradient, which is used
to make ATP
difference between substrate-level and oxidative (or
chemiosmotic) phosphorylation
source of energy used to produce ATP
purpose of fermentation
is a metabolic pathway that regenerates NAD+ from
NADH
2 kind of fermentation and what they do
Lactic acid: glycolysis accepts electrons from NADH, lactate and NAD+ are produced
Alcohol: converted to acetaldehyde and CO2, acetaldehyde accepts electrons from NADH
Light-dependent and Light-independent reactions
LD: produce O2, water is spilt, electrons get excited by light energy
LI: produce sugar
related because both start with CO2
plant pigments help with photosynthesis
chlorophyll, are crucial for photosynthesis as they absorb light energy from the sun
two complexes are used in the light reactions and what are
their main contributions to the total reaction
Photosystem 1: accepts electrons from the electron transport chain and uses them to make NADPH by transferring them to NADP+
Photosystem 2: absorb light energy and spilt water mole. to release e, proton and oxygen
three main steps of the Calvin Cycle
- Fixation
- Reduction
- Regeneration
purpose of Rubisco
converts C02 to carbon
photosynthesis be regulated
-Light triggers production of photo. proteins and activates rubisco
-High sugar production of photo. proteins and stimulates prod. of proteins that process and store sugar
-Low CO2 inhibits rubisco: Carbon
fixation is favored over
photorespiration when
concentrations of CO2 are higher
than O2
-Stomata= gas exchange
-oxygen and CO2 pass through stomata
-2 guard cells change shape to open/close pore
four phases of the cell cycle
M phase, G1, S(interphase), G2
DNA M Phase
actively being separated into two identical sets to be distributed to the daughter cells through the process of mitosis
DNA G1 Phase
the cell grows in size and synthesizes mRNA and protein that are required for DNA synthesis
DNA S Phase
a doubled amount of DNA compared to the beginning of the phase
DNA G2 Phase
each chromosome contains two identical DNA molecule
each phase of mitosis
prophase: separates the duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells.
prometaphase: a stage of cell division in which the nuclear membrane breaks down and chromosomes attach to the spindle, preparing for the separation of genetic material into two daughter cells
metaphase: chromosomes align in the center of a dividing cell
anaphase: pulled apart by spindle fibers, moving towards opposite poles of the cell, ensuring each new daughter cell receives a complete set of chromosomes
telophase: separated chromosomes reach the poles of the cell, a new nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes,
main areas of cell cycle control
G1, G2 and M checkpint
some areas of control that can be lost that
drive cancer progression
G1 checkpoint
main difference between meiosis I and
meiosis II
Meiosis 1:homologous chromosomes separate, reducing the chromosome number by half
Meiosis 2:sister chromatids separate, maintaining the haploid chromosome number
ways that meiosis generates genetic diversity
independent assortment of gametes and genetic recombination via crossing over
describe sister chromatids, homologous
chromosomes, and ploidy
SC: duplicate chromosomes
HC: Chromosome from each parent
P: # of sets of chromosomes
karyotype and how would describe that of
humans
a visual representation of an individual’s complete set of chromosomes: contains 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes
advantages and disadvantages to sexual
reproduction when compared to asexual
it creates genetic diversity within a population, allowing for better adaptation to changing environments, while the primary disadvantage is that it requires finding a mate and takes longer to produce offspring, making population growth slower
phenotypes and genotypes compare
P: physical expression
G: genetic code
gene vs. an allele
G:section of DNA that codes for a specific trait
A:variant form of that gene
homozygous and heterozygous
Homo: inherit the same version of the gene from each parent, so you have two matching genes
Heter: inherit a different version of a gene from each parent
which alleles are dominant and recessive
D: Only 1 copy is present
R: Both copies are present
Mendel’s monohybrid cross
3:1
dihybrid
crosses
9:3:3:1
phases of meiosis explain Mendel’s two genetic rules
Prophase 1, Metaphase 1 and Anaphase 1
use pedigrees to infer heredity in humans
visual chart used in human genetics to trace the inheritance pattern of a specific trait within a family
researchers discover that DNA was the genetic
material
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase
DNA be a template for its own replication
each strand of the DNA double helix serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand, essentially allowing the DNA molecule to copy itself during cell division
semiconservative DNA replication
DNA is duplicated in all known cells, resulting in two new double-stranded DNA molecules
enzyme is used to add new DNA bases to the growing
strand
DNA Polymerase: reads the sequence of an existing DNA strand and adds complementary nucleotides to build a new strand
replication of the leading strand differ from that of
the lagging strand
Lead: synthesized continuously in the direction of the replication fork
Lag: synthesized discontinuously in small fragments called Okazaki fragments, moving opposite to the replication fork direction
main parts of the replisome
DNA helicase: unwind DNA
DNA polymerase: synthesize new DNA
PCNA: hold polymerase on DNA
RCF: load sliding clamp
SSB: stabilize single strand DNA
DNA ligase: join fragments on lag strand
Central Dogma of Biology
genetic information flows in one direction only, from DNA to RNA to protein
enzyme complex is responsible for transcription
RNA Polymerase
enzyme complex is responsible for translation
Peptidyltransferase
the DNA bases lead to the formation of proteins
by dictating the sequence of amino acids in a protein through a process called “transcription” and “translation
Redundant
All but two amino acids
are encoded by more than one
codon
Unambiguous
One codon never
codes for more than one amino acid
Non-overlapping
Codons are read
one at a time
Universal
All codons specify
the same amino acids in all
organisms (with a few minor
exceptions)
Conservative
If several codons
specify the same amino acid, the
first two bases are usually identical
mutations lead to different proteins being made
by altering the DNA sequence of a gene, which in turn changes the sequence of amino acids that make up the protein, ultimately affecting its structure and function
kinds would have the most impact on phenotypes
Genes, specifically mutations within genes
