Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

SEMESTER 2 > BIO 112 exam 2 > Flashcards

BIO 112 exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Thermoregulation

A

The process by which animals maintain their body temperature within a normal range.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What can happen to animals whose body temperatures are outside of a normal range.

A

Reduce the efficiency of enzymatic reactions, alter fluidity of cellular membranes, and affect other temperature-sensitive biochemical processes, potentially with fatal results.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Endothermic (add examples)

A

Humans, mammals, and birds

They are warmed mostly by heat generated by metabolism

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Ectothermic

A

Non avian reptiles, fishes, amphibians, and most invertebrates
They gain most of their heat from external sources

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Integumentary system (what is it, why is it important)

A

The outer covering of the body, consisting of the skin, hair, and nails, very important in thermo regulation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Insulation is important why?

A

A major thermoregulatory adaptation in mammals and birds is insulation, which reduces blood flow of heat between an animals body and its environment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Two circulatory adaptations, what are they

A

Vasodilation- widens superficial blood vessels, increases flow
Vasoconstriction- reverse process, decreases flow

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Countercurrent exchange

A

The transfer of heat (or solutes) between fluids that are flowing in opposite directions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

How does the process of countercurrent exchange occur

A

Arteries and veins are located next to each other in countercurrent exchangers because blood flows through the arteries and veins in opposite directions, the arrangement allows heat exchange to be remarkably efficient. Warm blood moves from the body core in arteries, it transfers heat to the colder blood returning from the extremities in the veins. Most importantly heat is transferred along the entire length of the exchanger, maximizing the rate of heat exchange

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

A way that animals cool down

A

Cooling by evaporative heat loss.
Panting, sweating, bathing can help animals to lose heat by carrying away heat in the water that come from their sweat glands

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Five major ways animals thermoregulate

A
  1. Insulation
  2. Circulatory adaptations
  3. Cooling by evaporative heat loss
  4. Behavioral responses
  5. Adjusting metabolic heat production
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Behavior responses in thermoregulation

A

When cold animals seek warm places, and expand a portion of their body exposes the heat source. When hot, they bathe, move to cool areas.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

Adjusting metabolic heat production

A

Muscle movement, shivering and thermogenesis and no shivering thermogenesis in as quickly as five or ten minutes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Thermogenesis

A

Used to match changing rates of heat loss by such muscle activity as moving or shivering

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Non shivering thermogenesis

A

Some mammals, certain hormones can cause mitochondria to increase their metabolic activity and produce heat instead of ATP.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Brown fat

A

Some mammals have brown fat in their neck and between their shoulders that is specialized for rapid heat production

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Acclimatization in thermoregulation

A

In birds and mammals, acclimatization to seasonal temperature changes often includes insulation, growing a thicker coat of fur in the winter and shedding it in the summer. Acclimatization often includes adjustments at the cellular level. Cells may produce variants of enzymes that have the same function but different optimal temperatures.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Hypothalamus

A

The sensors for thermoregulation are concentrated in the hypothalamus, the brain region that also controls the circadian clock. Within the hypothalamus a group of nerve cells function as a thermostat, responding to body temperatures outside the normal range by activating mechanisms that promote heat loss or gain

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Fever

A

In the course of a viral or bacterial infection a fever may develop; an elevated body temperature. A variety of experiments have shown that fever reflects an increase in the normal range for the biological thermostat

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Bioenergetics

A

Determines the nutritional needs and is related to the animal’s size, activity, and environment.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Metabolic rate

A

The sum of all the energy an animal uses in a given time interval

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Ways metabolic rate can be measured

A

Monitoring an animals heat loss
Amount of oxygen consumed or carbon dioxide produced
The rate of food consumption, the energy content of the food, and the chemical energy lost in waste product ( over long periods of time)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Minimum metabolic rate

A

Animals must maintain a minimal metabolic rate for basic functions such as cell maintenance, breathing, and heartbeat.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

The basal metabolic rate (BMR)

A

The minimum metabolic rate of no growing endothermic that is at rest, has an empty stomach, and is not experiencing stress. BMR is measured under a comfortable temperature range- a range that requires no generation or shedding of heat above the minimum metabolic rate

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

standard metabolic rate (SMR)

A

The metabolic rate of a fasting, no stressed ectothermic at rest at a particular temperature is called its standard metabolic rate (SMR)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Influences on metabolic rate

A

Age, sex, size, activity, temperature, and nutrition

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Torpor

A

A psychological state of decreased activity and metabolism, is an adaptation that enables animals to save energy while avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Hibernation

A

Along term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Energy requirements, in ecosystems

A

Sunlight is captured by autotrophs converted to chemical energy via photosynthesis and converted by cellular respiration to release energy

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Autotrophs

A

The producers
Capture energy via photosynthesis an endergonic reaction, requires energy. And Uses energy via cellular respiration an exergonic reaction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Heterotrophs

A

Consumers, Feed on organic materials for energy and materials , use energy via cellular respiration. Every time energy is converted from one form to another some heat is lost

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Energy conservation

A

Adaptations enables animals to save energy and avoid difficult conditions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Estivation

A

Summer torpor saves energy when water is scarce or temperatures are too high

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Regulator

A

Uses internal control mechanisms to moderate internal change in the face of external, environmental fluctuation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

A conformer

A

Allows its internal condition to vary with certain external changes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Thermal neutral zone

A

An endothermic temperature tolerance range the basal rate of heat production is in equilibrium with the rate of heat loss to the external environment

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

LCT

A

Lower critical temperature

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

UCT

A

Upper critical temperature

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

The LCT and UCT vary with what

A

Species and season

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

Poikilotherm

A

Internal temperature varies along with that of the ambient environmental temperature (most ectotherms)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Homeotherm

A

Body temperature is relatively constant (endotherms)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

The circulatory system connects organs of gas exchange with what?

A

Body cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Open an closed circulatory systems have three basic components

A
  1. A circulatory fluid (blood or hemolymph)
  2. A set of tubes (blood vessels)
  3. A muscular pump (heart)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Endotherms use —– more energy than ectotherms

A

10x

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Double fertilization

A

Separate and independently powered systemic and pulmonary circuits

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

Superior vena cava

A

Blood from head, neck, and forelimbs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

Inferior vena cava

A

Blood from trunk and hind limbs

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

Tricuspid valve

A

Right atrioventricular valve

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

Bicuspid valve

A

Or mitral valve, left atrioventricular valve

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

Pulmonary valve

A

Semilunar valve that opens into the pulmonary trunk

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

Aortic valve

A

Opens into the aortic arch

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

“Lub”

A

Recoil of blood against closed AV valves

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

Dub

A

Recoil against semilunar valves

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

Cardiac cycle

A

Rhythmic cycle of the heart contracting and relaxing

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

Systole

A

Contraction= pumping phase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

Diastole

A

Relation- filling phase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

Cardiac output

A

The volume of blood pumped into the systemic circulation per minute

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

Heart rate

A

The pulse, the number of beats per minute

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

Stroke volume

A

The amount of blood pumped into a single contraction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

The heart beat is generated by what?

A

Autorhythmic cardiac muscle cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

Sinoatrial (SA) node

A

Pacemaker

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

Atrioventricular (AV) node

A

Impulses delayed

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

Sympathetic nerves

A

Speed pacemaker

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

Parasympathetic nerves

A

Slow pacemaker

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

Blood pressure

A

The physical principles that govern movement of water in plumbing systems apply to the functioning of blood vessels

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

Central lumen

A

Vessel’s cavity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

Endothelium

A

Epithelial cells lining blood vessels

Smooth to minimize resistance

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

Smooth muscle layer

A

Thicker around arteries than veins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

Capillaries

A
  • Only slightly wider than a red blood cell
  • where exchange with interstitial fluid occurs
  • flow controlled by precapillary sphincters
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

Basal lamina

A

Extra cellular layer of thin Waller capillaries, facilitate materials exchange

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

Why is blood velocity the slowest in capillary beds

A

High resistance and large total cross sectional area

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
72
Q

Arteries

A

(Away) thicker walled to accommodate higher pressure

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
73
Q

Veins

A

(Towards)

  • blood flows mainly a result of muscle action
  • valves maintain unidirectional blood flow
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
74
Q

Vessel function

A

Blood flows from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
75
Q

Recoil of elastic arterial walls

A

Maintains blood pressure at diastole

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
76
Q

Resistance

A

Blood flow in the narrow diameters of tiny capillaries and arterioles dissipates much of the pressure

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
77
Q

Systolic pressure

A

Pressure in arteries during ventricular systole

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
78
Q

Diastolic pressure

A

The pressure in the arteries during diastole ( atrial wall recoil)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
79
Q

Vasoconstriction

A

The contraction of smooth muscle in arterioles walls

  • increases blood pressure
  • endothelin (a peptide) induced
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
80
Q

Vasodilation

A

The relaxation of smooth muscles in the arterioles; causes blood pressure to fall, nitric oxide( NO) induced

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
81
Q

Function of blood

A

Exchange, transport, and defense

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
82
Q

Plasma

A

45% blood volume
Specialized connective tissue
90% water

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
83
Q

Electrolytes

A

Inorganic salts in the form of dissolved ions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
84
Q

Plasma proteins

A

Influence blood pH, osmotic pressure, and viscosity

- various plasma proteins function in lipid transport, immunity, and blood clotting

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
85
Q

Two types of cells suspended in blood plasma with platelets

A

Erythrocytes- red blood cells

Leukocytes- white blood cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
86
Q

Five facts about Erythrocytes

A

Red blood cells

  1. Transport oxygen
  2. most numerous blood cell
  3. Contain hemoglobin (iron containing protein that transports oxygen
  4. No nucleus when mature
  5. Live 120 days
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
87
Q

3 facts about leukocytes

A

White blood cells

  • five major types: monocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, and lymphocytes
  • function in defense by phagocytizing bacteria and debris or by producing antibodies
  • found both inside and outside of the circulatory system
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
88
Q

Platelets

A

Fragments of cells, function in blood clotting

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
89
Q

Stem cells location and three facts

A

In the red marrow of bones

  • produces erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets
  • erythropoietin (EPO) - hormone stimulates erythrocytes production when oxygen delivery is low
  • blood doping
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
90
Q

Coagulation

A

The formation of a solid clot from liquid blood

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
91
Q

Blood clotting

A

A cascade of complex reactions converts inactive fibrinogen to fibrin forming a clot (converted by enzyme thrombin)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
92
Q

Thrombus

A

A blood clot formed within a blood vessel, can block blood flow

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
93
Q

Cardiovascular disease

A

Disorders of the heart and the blood vessels

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
94
Q

Atherosclerosis

A

Caused by the buildup of fatty deposits (plaque) within arteries

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
95
Q

Low density lipoprotein (LDL)

A

Delivers cholesterol to cells for membrane production

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
96
Q

High density lipoprotein (HDL)

A

Scavengers excess cholesterol for return to the liver

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
97
Q

Heart attack

A

Myocardial infarction the damage or death of cardiac muscle tissue from blockage of coronary arteries

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
98
Q

Stroke

A

Death of nervous tissue in the brain, usually from rupture or blockage off arteries in the head

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
99
Q

Neurons

A

Nerve cells that transfer information within the body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
100
Q

Two types of signals used by neurons to communicate

A 
Electrical signals (long-distance) 
Chemical signals (short-distance)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
101
Q

Dendrite

A

Receives and carries information toward cell body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
102
Q

Cell body

A

Location of most neurons organelles (including nucleus)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
103
Q

Axon

A

Transmits information to other cells, carries impulse away from cell body

104
Q

Heart attack

A

Myocardial infarction the damage or death of cardiac muscle tissue from blockage of coronary arteries

105
Q

Stroke

A

Death of nervous tissue in the brain, usually from rupture or blockage off arteries in the head

106
Q

Neurons

A

Nerve cells that transfer information within the body

107
Q

Two types of signals used by neurons to communicate

A 
Electrical signals (long-distance) 
Chemical signals (short-distance)
108
Q

Dendrite

A

Receives and carries information toward cell body

109
Q

Cell body

A

Location of most neurons organelles (including nucleus)

110
Q

Axon

A

Transmits information to other cells, carries impulse away from cell body

111
Q

Axon hillock

A

Come shaped base of axon typically where signals that travel down axon are generated

112
Q

Synapse

A

Junction between axon, transmitting information to another receiving cell

113
Q

Synaptic terminal

A

Specialized synaptic junction at each axon branch

114
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Chemical messengers that transmit information from transmitting cells (presynaptic cell) to receiving cells (post synaptic cell)

115
Q

Glial cells

A

Supporting cells in vertebrates and most invertebrates

  • nourish, neurons, insulate axons and regulate extra cellular fluid surrounding neurons.
  • outnumber neurons in mammalian brain 10-50 fold
116
Q

Oligodendrocytes are in what part of the nervous system

A

The CNS

117
Q

Schwann cells are in the

A

PNS

118
Q

Four types of neurons

A

Sensory neurons
Interneurons
Motor neurons
Neuroendocrine

119
Q

Sensory neurons

A

Receives stimuli from environment

120
Q

Interneurons

A

Act between neurons

121
Q

Motor neurons

A

Transmit information to muscles from inter neurons

122
Q

Neuroendocrine cells

A

Neurosecretory cells- produce hormones

123
Q

CNS

A

Central nervous system- brain and nerve cord, ganglia

  • ventral nerve chord
  • dorsal nerve chord
124
Q

PNS

A

Peripheral nervous system- everything outside CNS

125
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

SNS- voluntary, skeletal

126
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

ANS - involuntary, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle glands, sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions

127
Q

Enteric Nervous System

A

ENS- involuntary, smooth muscle, glands, neurosecretory cells

128
Q

Membrane potential

A

A neuron function of the transfer of information

- voltage difference across a membrane

129
Q

Resting potential

A

The membrane potential of a neuron not sending signals

130
Q

Sodium potassium pumps

A

Use ATP energy to maintain K- and Na+ gradients across the plasma membrane

131
Q

Na+ concentration is highest where?

A

outside of the cell

132
Q

K+ concentration is highest where?

A

inside of the cell

133
Q

cl- concentration is highest where?

A

outside of the cell

134
Q

negatively charged proteins inside cells that contribute to what?

A

internal negatieve charge

135
Q

equilibrium potential

A

(Eion) the membrane voltage for a particular ion at equilibrium (movement out=movement in)

136
Q

Eion=?

A

62 mV (log[ion]outside/[ion]inside)

137
Q

graded potential

A

a shift in membrane potential that varies with stimulus strength decay with time and distance

138
Q

action potential

A

massive change in membrane voltage. have a constant magnitude and can regenerate in adjacent regions of membrane. spread along axons and thus transmit signals over distances.

139
Q

gated ion channels

A

open and close in response to stimuli. changes membrane permeability to particular ions, altering membrane potential.

140
Q

voltage gated ion channels

A

open or close in response to membrane potential of certain level passing. positive feedback in Na+ channels and depolarization.

141
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

increase in the magnitude of the membrane potential. In resting neuron, hyperpolarization increases outflow of positive ions or inflow of negative ions.

142
Q

depolarization

A

reduction in the magnitude of the membrane potential. involves faded sodium channels in resting neuron

143
Q

myelin sheath

A

insulates vertebrate axons, it increases action potential speed, its made by glial cells

144
Q

saltatory conduction

A

action potentials in myelinated axons jump between the nodes of ranvier

145
Q

nodes of ranvier

A

gaps in the myelin sheath where voltage-gated Na+ channels are found and action potentials formed)

146
Q

Synapse

A

junction between neurons and another cell, neurons communicate with other cells across synapses

147
Q

electrical synapses

A

electrical current flows from one neuron to another through gap junctions

148
Q

gap junctions

A

connexion transmembrane proteins form tiny fluid filled tubes small ions can pass through)

149
Q

chemical synapses

A

chemical neurotransmitter carries information between neurons. slower, more common.

150
Q

neurotransmitter

A

chemical messenger secreted by neurons

  1. synthesized in the presynaptic neuron
  2. packed in synaptic vesicles at the synaptic terminal
  3. action potential opens Ca+ channels, causes release
  4. diffusion across the synaptic cleft
  5. ligand-gated ion channels on postsynaptic cell
  6. post-synaptic cell action potential initiated
151
Q

ionotropic receptor

A

post synaptic receptors, ligand gated ion channel- receptor is both neurotransmitter binding site and ion channel

152
Q

metabotrophic receptor

A

second messenger systems- neurotransmitter binding site connected to ion channel by a series of molecules including a G protein. onset slower, last longer, amplifying

153
Q

excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)

A

depolarization that brings the membrane potential toward threshold. ion channel is permeable for Na+ and K+ or Ca+

154
Q

inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)

A

hyperpolarizations that move the membrane potential farther from threshold. Ion channel is permeable for only Cl- (move in) or K+ (move out)

155
Q

temporal summation

A

two EPSPs or IPSPs produced in rapid succession at same synaptic terminal are summed

156
Q

spatial summation

A

EPSPs and IPSPs produced nearly simultaneously by different synapses on the same postsynaptic neuron ass together

157
Q

neurotransmitters terminated

A
  1. inactivating enzymes
  2. transport channel presynaptic cell uptake (ex;serotonin)
  3. diffusion out of cleft
158
Q

acetylcholine

A

major neurotransmitter,

invertebrates: muscle stimulation at neuromuscular junction.
vertebrates: memory function, learning, neuromuscular stimulant

159
Q

ionotropic

A

(ligand gated)- excitatory at neuromuscular junction

160
Q

metabotropic

A

inhibitory at heart muscle, slows HR

161
Q

Glutamate

A

amino acid (rods and cones in eye retina) alcohol binds to glutamate receptors

162
Q

Gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA)

A

neuromuscular inhibition-opens Cl- or K+ channels to hyper polarize cells=IPSP. valium binds to GABA receptors, alcohol enhances inhibitions

163
Q

Biogenic Amines

A

active in the CNS and PNS

164
Q

epinephrine

A

(sympathetic nervous system at post ganglion synapsis; attentiveness, emotions, sleeping, dreaming, and learning

165
Q

dopamine

A

sleep mood, attention and learning (“cognitive alertness”parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia involve altered levels of dopamine)

166
Q

serationin

A

sleep mood, attention and learning (altering levels treats depression, anxiety, social phobia)

167
Q

neuropeptides

A

(relatively short chains of amino acids)

- substance P and Endorphins- (Increase pain perception, endorphins reduce pain perception)

168
Q

Opiates

A

(like heroin) bind to endorphin G-protein-coupled receptors, can be used as painkillers

169
Q

nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide(CO)

A

local regulators in the PNS

170
Q

gases are

A
  1. not stored in cytoplasmic vesicles, but synthesized on demand
  2. broken down within a few seconds of production
  3. viagra inhibits enzyme that breaks down NO, keeping smooth muscle of blood vessels of spongy erectile tissues relaxed and full of blood.
171
Q

nerves

A

the bundled axons of multiple neurons (=nerve cells)channel and organize information flow through the nervous system

172
Q

nervous system

A

circuits of neurons and supporting cells

173
Q

nerve nets

A

simplest of nervous systems

174
Q

ganglia

A

clusters of nerve cell bodies in the PNS

175
Q

nucleus

A

a cluster of nerve cell bodies in the CNS

176
Q

cephalization

A

an evolutionary trend toward clustering sensory neurons and interneurons at the anterior end of the body

177
Q

glial cells= glia= neuroglia

A

cells that nourish, support, and regulate the function of neurons , nervous system development

178
Q

four main functions

A
  1. surround neurons and hold them in place.
  2. supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons
  3. insulate one neuron from another
  4. destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons
179
Q

six main types of glial cells

A
  1. ependymal
  2. astrocytes
  3. radial glia
  4. oligodendrocytes
  5. schwann cells
  6. microglia
180
Q

ependymal cells

A

line the ventricles of the brain and spinal cord, lumen, produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid.

181
Q

astrocytes

A

participate in forming the blood brain barrier. can be stem cells (wrap around a neuron and capillary to hold things in place)

182
Q

radial glia

A

form paths for neurons growing from neural tube to follow. can be stem cells.

183
Q

oligodendrocytes

A

form myelin sheaths in CNS

184
Q

schwann cells

A

form myelin sheaths in PNS

185
Q

microglia

A

immune cells in the CNS, derived from bone marrow and blood stem cells

186
Q

ventricles

A

cerebrospinal fluid filled cavities in brain

187
Q

gray matter

A

neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons, outer brain

188
Q

white matter

A

bundles of myelinated axons (inner brain)

189
Q

spinal cord

A

conveys information to and from the brain and generates basic patterns of locomotion

190
Q

reflex

A

automatic response to a stimulus

191
Q

gray matter

A

unmyelinated (inner spine)

192
Q

white matter

A

myelinated (outer spine)

193
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

everything outside the nervous system

194
Q

afferent neurons

A

carry signals from sensory receptors to CNS

195
Q

motor system

A

carries signals to skeletal muscles (voluntary and involuntary, also reflexes like knee-jerk

196
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

regulates smooth and cardiac muscles (generally involuntary, sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions

197
Q

what happens when the body goes through sympathetic - “flight or fight”

A

heart beats faster, reduce digestion, increase production of epinephrine or adrenal medulla, liver converts glycogen to glucose, synapses just outside spinal cord,

198
Q

acetylcholine

A

pre ganglion

199
Q

norepinephrine

A

post ganglion

200
Q

what happens during parasympathetic “rest-digest”

A

heart rate decreases, pupil of eye constricted, digestion enhanced- salivary gland secretions, stomach, intestine, gallbladder and pancreas activity stimulated,
glycogen production increases

201
Q

acetylcholine

A

both pre and post ganglion

202
Q

ocelli

A

light detecting organs “eyespots” pair located near the head.

203
Q

taxis

A

movement in response to some stimulus (planar exhibit negative phototaxis in avoiding light.)

204
Q

compound eye

A

insects and crustaceans,

205
Q

ommatidia

A

light detectors, up to several thousand per eye, effective at detecting movement, insects have excellent color vision, and some can see ultraviolet

206
Q

single lense eyes

A

vertebrates and others

207
Q

rods

A

photoreceptors

208
Q

cones

A

photoreceptors and color receptors

209
Q

horizontal cells

A

carry signals from one rod or cone to other photoreceptors and several bipolar cells

210
Q

bipolar cells

A

may be inhibited by distant horizontal cells

211
Q

amacrine cells

A

distribute information rom one bipolar cell to several ganglion cells

212
Q

ganglion cells

A

receives information from an array of rods and cones from a receptive field ( part of visual field a ganglion cell responds)

213
Q

lateral inhibition

A

horizontal cell inhibit more distant photoreceptors and bipolar cells that are not illuminated. sharpens edges and enhances contrasts of image.

214
Q

paracrine signaling

A

signals released by one cell diffuses locally to act on nearby cells to respond

215
Q

synaptic signaling

A

at neuron synapses action potential stimulates neurotransmitter release

216
Q

endocrine signaling

A

hormal signaling, cells release hormone molecules which diffuse into and travel via circulatory system to distant target cells

217
Q

hormone

A

chemical messengers that act on specific target cells in other parts of the body changing target cell function

218
Q

plant growth regulators

A

hormones, travel in vessels, though cells or diffusion through air as gas

219
Q

gas

A

(some plant hormones are gas) eg. ethylene promotes fruit ripening

220
Q

3 stages of cell signaling

A
  1. reception
  2. transduction
  3. response
221
Q

reception

A

signal molecule binds to receptor protein on a cell surface (surface recognition proteins)

222
Q

transduction

A

receptor protein changes, usually signal transduction pathway involves a series of different molecules

223
Q

response

A

some cellular activity resulting from transducer signal

224
Q

ligand

A

a molecule that binds specifically to another (often larger) molecule

225
Q

kinase

A

enzyme that adds phosphate group

226
Q

monomers

A

inactive form- ligand binding site extra cellular, double helix plasma membrane, cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase

227
Q

cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase

A

(transfer phosphate group from ATP to tyrosine)

228
Q

dimers active form

A
  1. each kinase phosphorylates tyrosine on the other monomer tail.
  2. relay proteins bind to specific phosphorylated tyrosine- structural change- activated protein triggers transduction pathway
229
Q

a single ligand binding even can trigger what?

A

can trigger many pathways in RTKs

230
Q

ligand gated ion channels+ ionotrophic receptors

A

binding to transmembrane protein opens or closes ion channel result is changes in ion concentration inside the cell

231
Q

transcript factor

A

controls which genes are turned on and transcribed into mRNA

232
Q

in eukaryocytes a collection of proteins called transcription factor mediate what?

A

the binding of RNA polymerase and DNA to transcribe gene into mRNA

233
Q

transduction

A

cascades of molecular interactions relay signals from receptors to target molecules inside cell

234
Q

signal transduction pathway

A

a series of steps in which a signal is changed into a different form (“relay molecules” the molecules in the pathway)

235
Q

three functions of the signal transduction pathway

A
  1. adding or removing phosphate groups to active/inactive proteins
  2. release other small molecule messengers
  3. release small ion messengers
236
Q

protein kinases

A

enzymes that add phosphate groups to proteins (phosphorylation)

237
Q

protein phosphates

A

enzymes that rapidly remove phosphate groups from proteins (dephosphorylation)
tyrosine kinase
serine/ threonine kinases important in animals, plants, fungi

238
Q

Cyclic AMP (cAMP)

A

is one of the most widely used second messengers

239
Q

adenylyl cyclase

A

enzyme in the plasm membrane that converts ATP to cAMP in response to an extracellular signal

240
Q

Ca2+

A

cytoplasmic concentrations of calcium usually low. Small numbers of ions can be large change. calcium usually released from ER in transduction pathway

241
Q

IP3

A

inositol triphosphate- diacylglycerol (DAG) secondary messengers that are produced by cleavage of phospholipid in plasma membrane

242
Q

scaffolding proteins

A

increase effieciecy of response

243
Q

synthesis

A

enzymes or proteins can be altered by turning genes on and off

244
Q

transcription factor

A

a regulatory protein that binds to DNA and affects transcription of specific genes

245
Q

activity

A

instead of turning completely off or on, activity can be altered

246
Q

amplification

A

every enzyme in a cascade can catalyze a number of reactions, amplifying products

247
Q

intercellular communication is classified b two criteria

A

the type of secreting cell (endocrine, neuron) the route taken by the signal in reaching its target (local diffusion, circulatory system)

248
Q

local regulators

A

molecules that act over short distances, reaching target cells solely by diffusion

249
Q

paracrine signaling

A

the target cells lie near the secreting cells

250
Q

autocrine signaling

A

the target cell is also the secreting cell

251
Q

synaptic signaling

A

neurotransmitters secreted a signals at a synapse (specialized junctions neurons form with target cells)

252
Q

long distance regulators

A

molecules act on target cells at a distance from source cell.

253
Q

neuroendocrine signaling

A

neurosecretoy cells specialized neurons secrete neurohomormones (travel to target cells by way of the circulatory system)

254
Q

apoptosis

A

a type of programmed cell death that integrates input from multiple signaling pathways.

255
Q

quorum sensing

A

sensing the concentration of such signaling molecules allows bacteria to monitor the local entity of cells

256
Q

biofilm

A

an aggregation of bacteria cells adhered to a surface and they derive nutrition from the surface they are on

SEMESTER 2 (4 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions