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MCAT Fuzzy Concepts > BIO > Flashcards

BIO Flashcards

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1
Q

ubiquination

A

targets protein for degradation by proteasome

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2
Q

structure of purine vs pyrimidine

A

Purine: two rings ( G has carbonyl, adenine has amine) Pyrimidine: one ring. Uracil/T has two carbonyl, cytosine has amine)

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3
Q

What methodology to use to examine post-translational modifications to proteins (i.e. histone acetylation)

A

Western Blot

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4
Q

Prion

A

abnormally folded protein that induces a normally folded version of the protein to also adopt the abnormal structure, which is often deleterious

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5
Q

where in male reproductive system do gametes become motile

A

Epididymis. Sperm is produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testes, completes maturation and becomes motile in the epididymis

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6
Q

Why don’t microfilament lengths NOT change when sarcomere shortens in a muscle contraction?

A

the - end of the microfilaments are capped by Z lines, and the + ends are capped by another protein. actin monomers cannot be added or subtracted

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7
Q

Conjugation (bacteria)

A

the plasmid genes of one bacterium direct the building of a cytoplasmic bridge (sexpilus) between that organism and a bacteria lacking it

bacterial form of mating (sex reproduction)

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8
Q

what structure do bacteria use to carry out ox phos

A

PM

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9
Q

what stage would a nondividing cell most likely be in

A

Go or G1. cell remains metabolically active, but is not replicating DNA

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10
Q

effect of opiates on eyes

A

pinpoint pupils. constrict. PSNS stimulation cause iris to contract

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11
Q

when do mitotic divisions of oogonia occur in women

A

before birth

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12
Q

adaptive radiation

A

divergence of one species into multiple species over time, which can occur when subgroups of the original species are separated or isolated in different environments so that these subgroups evolve independently of one another

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13
Q

Hardy Weinberg

A

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 where p^2= freq dominant allele q^2= freq recessive 2pg= freq hetero

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14
Q

ectoderm

A

NS, epidermis

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15
Q

mesoderm

A

blood cells, connective tissue (muscles, bones), several organs (heart, gonads, kidney)

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16
Q

endoderm

A

lining of digestive tract, associated organs (i.e. liver)

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17
Q

which a.a. can be phosphorylated

A

serine and threonine (OH)

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18
Q

average molecular weight of a.a.

A

110 Da

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19
Q

Hill coefficient

A

measure of cooperativity. Hill coefficient >1 means enzyme demonstrates positive cooperativity n<1= negative cooperativity n=1: no cooperativity

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20
Q

catalytic efficient

A

kcat/km Kcat= turnover number (substrates –> product/ sec) Km= affinity

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21
Q

noncompetitive inhibitor

A

bind E and ES with same affinity decrease Vmax (not Km)

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22
Q

competitive inhibitor

A

bind in place of S, increase Km

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23
Q

uncompetitive

A

bind allosteric site after S has bound. decreases Km and Vmax (ratio might be same)

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24
Q

mixed inhibitor

A

bind allosteric site either before or after S has bound, but has higher affinity for one state over the other. if binds more readily to enzyme, Km is higher if binds more readily to ES, Km is lower DECREASE Vmax

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25
Q

lineweaver burke plot

A

slope: Km/Vmax Y intercept: 1/Vmax X intercept: 1/Km

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26
Q

Michaelis Menten eq

A

Vo= Vmax[S]/ (Km + [S] )

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27
Q

kcat

A

Vmax/[E]t how many S and E can turn into P per second at max speed

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28
Q

how are different protein isoforms created?

A

synthesized from same gene through alternative splicing, during which sections of introns and exons are spliced. different combos of exons can create different protein isoforms

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29
Q

effect of reducing agent on protein

A

cleaves disulfide bonds

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30
Q

convergent evolution

A

distantly related organisms independtly evolve similar traits (i.e. dolphins and sharks)

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31
Q

what does fasting and starvation lead to

A

fasting: glycogen breakdown, gluconeogenesis continued fasting: sustained FA oxidation, thereby production ketone bodies

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32
Q

restriction enzymes

A

recognize specific DNA sequences, cut in predictable manner. most recognize palindroic sequences: both strands of DNA will have same sequence when read 5-3

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33
Q

what type of restriction enzyme could recognize this sequence CCCCGGGC

A

4 bp or 6 bp

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34
Q

imprinted gene

A

expressed in parent-specific manner

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35
Q

order in which filtrate passes through nephron

A

BC, PT, Loop of Henle, DT, CD

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36
Q

cytochrome P450 mechanism

A

monooxygenases, where an oxygen atom is inserted into a substrate (the drug of interest), thereby resulting in the oxidation of the substrate.

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37
Q

fatty acid oxidation location

A

MITOCHONDRIA. carnitine shuttle, transports fatty acids into the mitochondria for oxidization

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38
Q

henry’s law

A

The Henry’s Law constant kH relates the solubility of a gas S to the pressure of that gas Pg above the solution and is written as S = kH•Pg

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39
Q

vaccine suitability

A

there are two aspects to consider: immunogenicity and toxicity can’t choose part of pathogen that is toxic

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40
Q

eukaryote vs prokaryote ribosome size

A

Eukaryotes=even 40s, 60s, and 80s 60s=large Prokaryotes= 30s, 50s, 70s large subunit=50s

41
Q

order of aminoacyl transferase tRNA translation

A

A site –> P site –> E site

42
Q

quantitative vs RT PCR

A

quantitative: measure DNA RT: mRNA RT-PCR = Reverse Transcriptase PCR. Amplifies RNA by making cDNA and then amplifying it. Lets you know if the RNA you are looking for is in sample. qPCR = Quantitative PCR. Fluorescent probes are added to genetic material to count how much you have. 1 Fluorescent Event = 1 Additional Transcript amplified. A computer reads fluorescence and lets you know how how much genetic material you have quantitatively.

43
Q

native page

A

Native PAGE is used to separate molecules based on their electrophoretic mobility, relying on length, conformation, and charge.

44
Q

gel filtration chromatogrpahy

A

Gel filtration chromatography separates protein only on the basis of their size.

45
Q

tight junction

A

intercellular junctions that prevent the movement of solutes within the space between adjacent cells. In blood capillaries, neighboring endothelial cells form tight junctions with one another to restrict the diffusion of harmful substances and large molecules into the interstitial fluid surrounding the brain BBB

46
Q

non-disjunction

A

sister chromatids fail to separate during cell division

47
Q

SER

A

redominant site of lipid synthesis specifically of phospholipids and cholesterol

48
Q

stop and start codons

A

initiation: AUG termination: UAA, UGA, UAG ur an ass, ur giant ass, ur a giant

49
Q

4 complexes of ETC

A
  1. NADH-CoQ oxidoreductase: Uses Fe-S cluster to transfer e- NADH –> NAD+ & H+ (4 protons pumped into IMM space)
  2. Succinate-CoQ oxidoreductase. Uses Fe-S cluster to transfer e- Succinate –> Fumarate + 2H+. NO PROTONS PUMPED
  3. CoQH2-Cytochrome C oxidoreductase: uses Fe-S cluster to transfer e- from CoQH2 to heme, forming cytochrome C (FOUR PROTONS PUMPED)
  4. Cytochrome C Oxidase: Uses cytochromes and Cu to transfer e in form of H- from cytochrome C to O2 forming water (TWO PROTONS PUMPED
50
Q

glycogen synthase

A

creates α-1,4 glycosidic links between glucose molecules. It is activated by insulin in the liver and muscles

51
Q

branching enzyme

A

moves a block of oligoglucose from one chain and connects it as a branch using an α-1,6 glycosidic link.

52
Q

summary E yield from carb metabolism

A
  1. Glycolysis: 2 ATP, 2 NADH
  2. pyruvate dehydrogenase: 2 NADH
  3. TCA: 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 GTP

each NADH=2.5 (2.5*10)= 25 ATP

each FADH2= 1.5 (1.5*2)= 3

GTP=ATP= 2

ATP: 2

total yield: 30-32

53
Q

glycogen phosphorylase

A

removes single glucose 1-phosphate molecules by breaking α-1,4 glycosidic links. In the liver, it is activated by glucagon to prevent low blood sugar. In exercising skeletal muscle, it is activated by epinephrine and AMP to provide glucose for the muscle itself

54
Q

debranching enzyme

A

moves a block of oligoglucose from one branch and connects it to the chain using an α-1,4 glycosidic link

55
Q

gluconeogenesis

where does tit occur?

three irreversible steps

A

occrs in cyto and Mi, predominantly in liver

mostly the reverse of glycolysis using same enzymes

The three irreversible steps of glycolysis must be bypassed by different enzymes:

  • Pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase bypass pyruvate kinase
  • Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase bypasses phosphofructokinase-1
  • Glucose-6-phosphatase bypasses hexokinase/ glucokinase
56
Q

pentose phosphate pathway

A
  • diverts Glucose-6-phosphate from glycolysis
  • key enzyme (RL): glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
  • forms NADPH (reducing agent in FA synthesis) & ribose-5-phosphate (nucleotide synthesis)
  • stimulated by NADP+, inhibited by NADPH
57
Q

postprandial metabolic state

A

well-fed (absorptive)

insulin secretion high, anabolic catabolism prevails

58
Q

postabsorptive state

A

fasting

insulin secretion low, glucagon and catecholamine secretion icnreases

59
Q

how are lipids transported

A

chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL, LDL, HDL

60
Q

HMG-CoA reductase

A

key enzyme in cholesterol synthesis

61
Q

palmitic acid

A

only FA that humans can synthesize, produced in cytoplasm from acetyl CoA transported out of Mi

62
Q

FA oxidation

A

occurs in mitochondria following tranposrt by cartinine shuttle

via beta oxidation

end up with x/2 acetly coA molecules, where x is number of C in chain

63
Q

ketogenesis

A
64
Q

protein digestion

A

primarily in small intestine. carbon skeletons of a.a. used for energy, either through gluconeogenesis or ketone bodie formatino

amino groups fed into urea cycle for excretion

65
Q

tissue-specific metabolism:

liver

adipose

resting muscle

active muscle

heart

brain

A
  • Liver: maintains blood glucose through glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. Processes lipids, cholesterol, bile, urea, and toxins.
  • Adipose: stores and releases lipids
  • Resting muscle: conserves carbohydrates as glycogen and uses free fatty acids for fuel
  • Active muscle: may use anaerobic metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, direct phosphorylation (creatine phosphate), or fatty acid oxidation
  • Cardiac muscle: uses fatty acid oxidation
  • Brain: uses glucose except in prolonged starvation, when it can use ketolysis
66
Q

SER vs RER

A

RER: ribosomes stud outside. site synthesis proteins destined for secretion or inertion into a membrane

SER: lipid synthesis, detoxification

67
Q

peroxisome

A

organelle containing hydrogen peroxide, site of β-oxidation of very long chain FA

68
Q

gram + vs - bacteria

A

gram +: large quantities PG in cell wall

gram-: smaller quantites PG with LPS

69
Q

cell cycle

A

G1: cell increases its organelles and cytoplasm

S: DNA replication

G2: same as G1

M: cell division

(G1+G2+S= interphase. Go=permanently stuck in interphase)

70
Q

MITOSIS

A

PMAT

Prophase:nucleolus dissapears, spindles/kinetochores appear, nuclear envelope converts into vesicles

Metaphase: chromosomes line up at metaphase plate, pulled to opposite pole

Anaphse: spindle fibres shorten, centromeres pull apart

telophase: nuclear membrane forms around chromosomes

71
Q

MEIOSIS

A

production haploid from diploid

in males, meiosis occurs in testis, haploid spermatazoa are end result

in F, meiosis begins in ovaries, completed after fertilization. arrested in prophase 1 for decades, reeneter meiosis at puberty. ovulation after meiosis 1 yields secondary oocyte and polar body, 2nd meiosis only occurs if fertilized.

(spermatagonia and oogonia undergo meiosis)

Prophase 1: chromosomes condense, nuc envelope breakdown. homologous chromosomes pair in synapsis to form tetrad. DNA is cut, genes are crossed over (recombination)

Metaphase 1: align at plate

Anaphase 1: homologous chromosomes separate, sisters remain together

telophase 1: cell divides into 2 (still haploid), each cell has single set of chromosomes. NO FURTHER DNA REPLICATION BEFORE MEIOSIS 2

meiosis 2: basically same as mitosis, but no replication

72
Q

4 stages of early development

A

Cleavage: mitotic divisions

Implantation: embryo implants during blastula stage

Gastrulation: ecto, endo, mesoderm form

Neurulation: germ layers develop into NS

CIG, NOW!

73
Q

3 germ layers

A

Ecto (attracto): brains, and looks (NS, epidermis), lens of eye, inner ear

Meso (middle): bones, blood, muscles, circulatory

Endo (anus is the end): digestive, respiratory, liver, pancreas

74
Q

layers of skin

A

Epidermis: keratinocytes, melanocytes, langerhans, Merkel

  1. Stratum corneum
  2. Stratum lucidum
  3. stratum granulosum
  4. stratum spinosum
  5. stratum basale

(come lets get sub burnt)

Dermis

  1. papillary dermis
  2. reticular dermis

(pretty red)

  • nerves, capillary

SubQ

  • vein, artery
75
Q

Aldosterone and ADH

A

Aldosterone: stimulates Na+ reabsorption, K+ and H+ secretion (interstitial –> filtrate), increasing water reabsorption, BV & BP

ADH: increase CD permeability to water, increase water reabsorption

76
Q

Anterior Pituitary hormones

A

FLAT PEG

FSH: stimulate follicle maturation, spermatogenesis

LH: stimulate ovulation, T synthesis

ACTH: stimulate adrenal cortex to make/release GCs

TSH:stimulate Thyroid to produce TH

PRL: milk production

Endorphins: inhibit pain perception in brain

GH:stimulate bone/muscle grow, lipolysis

77
Q

Posterior pituitary hormones

A

OT, ADH/vasopressin

78
Q

Thyroid hormones

A

TH: stimulate metabolic activity

calcitonin: decreases (TONES down) blood Ca level

“calciTONin, TONES down CA”

79
Q

PTH

A

increases blood Ca

80
Q

glucocorticoids & mineralcorticoids

A

GC: increase blood glu levels, decrease protein synthesis, antiinflammatory

MC: increase H2O reabosprtion kidney

81
Q

Adrenal medulla hormones

A

EP, NE. increse HR and blood glu

82
Q

pancrease hormones

A

insulin: decrease blood glu, increase glycogen store
glucagon: increase blood glu, stimulate conversion glycogen –> glu
somatostatin: suppress secretion of glucagon and insulni

83
Q

hormone from heart

A

atrial natriuretic peptide

osmoregulation, vasodilation

84
Q

thymus hormone

A

thymosin

stimulate TC developement

85
Q

4 stages menstrual cycle

A
  1. Follicular: FSH causes growth of a follicle
  2. Ovulation: LH causes follicle to release egg
  3. Luteal: corpus luteum forms
  4. Menstruation: endometrial lining sheds
86
Q

sarcomere

A

Z: end of sarcomere (z is end of alphabet)
I: only thin filaments (I is thin letter)

H: region with only thick (H is thick)

M line: middle

A: both thick and thin

87
Q

circulatory pathway through heart

A

Superior and inferior vena cava → right atrium → right ventricle → pulmonary arteries → lungs→ pulmonary veins → left atrium → left ventricle → aorta → body

88
Q

3 portal systems

A

hepatic, kidney, brain (hypophyseal)

89
Q

fetal circulation

A
  • Foramen ovale: connects right and left atria
  • Ductus arteriosus: connects pulmonary artery to aorta. Along with foramen ovale, shunts blood away from lungs
  • Ductus venosus: connects umbilical vein to inferior vena cava, connecting umbilical circulation to central circulation
90
Q

componenets of blood

A

Plasma: aqueous mix of nutrients, wastes, hormones, blood proteins, gases, and salts Erythrocytes (red blood cells): carry oxygen

91
Q

factors that lead to a right shift of Oxy-HGB curve

(right shift = decreased affinity)

A
  • ↑ Temperature
  • Bohr Effect ↓ pH, ↑ PCO2
  • O2 release to tissues enhanced when H+ allosterically binds to Hb. ↑ PCO2 leads to ↑ [H+]:
92
Q

platelet function

A

clotting

platelets release thromboplastin. converts inactive prothrombin into thrombin. thrombin converts fibrinogen into firbin, surrounds blood cells to form clot

93
Q

law of segregation

what happens if both parents are Rr

A

homologous alleles (chromosomes) separate so that each gamete has one copy of each gene

if both parents are Rr, the alleles separate to give a genotypic ratio of 1:2:1, and a phenotype ratio of 3:1

94
Q

law of independent assortment

A

alleles of unlinked genes assort independently in meiosis

for two trais: AaBb parents will produce AB, Ab, aB, ab gametes

the phenotypic ratio is 9:3:3:1

95
Q

codominance vs incomplete

A

co: both alleles expressed. both traits show up. (i.e. get red and blue flowers)
incomplete: mix of alleles in genotype seen in phenotype (i.e. red and blue parent flowers: get purple)

96
Q

patterns of inheritance: autosomal recessive, dominant & X-linked

A
  • Autosomal recessive: skips generations
  • Autosomal dominant: appears in every generation
  • X-linked (sex-linked): no male-to-male transmission, and more males are affected
97
Q

Hardy-Weinberg equation and assumption

A

Assume:

  • no mutations
  • large population
  • random mating
  • no migration
  • equal reproductive success

p + q = 1 p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

p = frequency of dominant allele

q = frequency of recessive allele

p2 = frequency of dominant homozygotes

2pq = frequency of heterozygotes

q2 = frequency of recessive homozygotes

98
Q

lytic vs lysogenic viruses

A

MCAT Fuzzy Concepts (4 decks)

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