Beliefs in Society: Perspectives Flashcards
Defining religion: substantive definition of religion
Weber defines religion as the belief in a superior/supernatural power that cannot be scientifically explained.
Defining religion: functional definition of religion
focus on the social and psychological functions of religion. Durkheim looks at how religion helps with social integration. this is inclusive of many practices and beliefs, that doesn’t have to have a belief in a supernatural being.
Defining religion: constructionist definition of religion
interpretivist approach: focus on how members define religion. it isn’t possible to create one universal definition of religion. Aldridge states that to Scientology members, it is a religion; however, the government has tried to ban it.
Defining religion: AO3
functional and constructionist definitions both consider an internal function for individuals.
Substantive definition is the only definition that considers content.
functional and constructionist definitions both believe there doesn’t need to be a supernatural being.
functionalism: Durkheim’s general beliefs
Durkheim noted that something may seem profane to a non-believer, but it can provoke powerful emotions in those who believe. he said symbols were significant, they represent a shared set of beliefs, values, traditions, and norms which make social life possible. these shared practices are defined as a collective conscience.
Functionalism: Durkheim’s study on Totemism
society is divided into clans and the members of each clan have duties to each other. each clan has its own totem which symbolises the Aboriginal God and the clan. the clan worship through song and dance. the symbols on each totem have individual meanings specific to that can and their God.
Functionalism: what are the 3 functions of Totem?
Collective consciousness: without this, society cannot survive. Durkheim stated regular acts of collective worship are critical in ensuring society survives.
Social solidarity: shared experiences of community. Repeating rituals to unify society’s members. The shared, internalized experiences encourage an awareness that as individuals we are relatively insignificant and dependent.
Individual support: religious beliefs and practices provide individuals with a sense of renewed strength/confidence and enthusiasm to help them.
functionalism: Durkheim’s functions of religion for society and the individual.
individual:
motivation to face up to life
society:
unifies members around around individuals
encourages social integration
social solidarity
both:
provides norms
social support based upon a sense of belonging
meanings, traditions, and class consciousness.
functionalism: Malinowski - the need for religion
life crisis: religion minimizes the potential disruption caused by death, creating a ‘valuable mental attitude’. Religion’s forceful assertion of immortality comforts the bereaved. religious rituals of the funeral ceremony bind together the survivors.
uncertain outcomes: Trobriand Islanders. fishing—when the seas were calm, they didn’t see any need for religious rituals, but when the islands fished outside the calm seas, the fishing was preceded by rituals.
functionalism: Parsons beliefs on religion
According to Parsons, religion is the primary source of meaning for society’s members. It provides and legitimates the core values of the culture and, therefore, promotes social solidarity and stability. He claimed that religion helps people deal with ‘life crises’, which would otherwise produce anomie and threaten social order.
functionalism: Bellah and Americanism
The concept of civil religion was popularised by Bellah, who drew on the ideas of Durkheim and Parsons. Parsons argues that Americans were unified by values and orientations derived from Protestantism. Durkheim states that any human group may be unified in a shared insight of ‘sacred’ beliefs and practices. This led Bellah to conclude that despite America’s social divisions, what largely unified them was an overarching ‘civil’ religion: a faith in Americanism.
social solidarity: rallies
collective consciousness: national anthem
individual support: aftermath of twin towers.
functionalism: evaluation
- functionalism fails to explain where religion comes from and the divisions it causes. For example, religion keeps women suppressed.
+ Religion is seen as a good thing for society and good for individuals by reinforcing social solidarity and collective consciousness. - Durkheim only examined religion on a small scale, can this be applied to today’s larger and more complex society?
marxism: marx views on religion
there is a conflict between the bourgeoisie and proletariat. religion helps keep the proletariat in place, and the beliefs justify the power and dominance of the ruling class.
marxism: opium of the people
this compares religion to a drug which keeps people unaware of their position (false class consciousness)
compensator for suffering:
Religion makes poverty more tolerable by offering rewards and compensation e.g. religion promises the reward of eternal life in paradise.
Justifying social order:
God is believed to create and maintain social order. The social order is inevitable and natural. Those at the bottom of the social order accept their position as a choice of God.
Religion dulls pain:
Religion makes the promise that there will be eternal bliss in the afterlife. e.g. Christianity promises salvation.
Supernatural intervention:
We hope that the supernatural will provide interventions to solve our problems on earth. E.g., we turn to religion when we have a difficult time to give us strength.
marxism: religion as ideology
religion distorts reality by encouraging the belief that people are dependent on a supernatural being. the belief that we are controlled by another being makes people feel like they don’t have control over their lives. religion justifies the position and social order, and the proletariat sees their exploitation as God’s will.
marxism: religion as ruling class justification
the ruling class are religious to justify their position to themselves and others. it justifies why the rich are rich and the poor are poor. people are blind to their situation - false class consciousness.
marxism: religion and alienation
the nature of work in a capitalist society means the workers are alienated. religion prevents revolution and makes people feel part of something bigger than themselves. (social solidarity)
marxism: evaluation
+ In Medieval Europe, Kings and Queens believed they were chosen by God, the ‘divine right of Kings’. They were only answerable to God, which helped them justify their absolute power as they weren’t accountable to any person or group.
- marxism doesn’t consider secularisation. The ruling class cannot impose their ideology on the majority as a lot of the population doesn’t attend church.
- there isn’t any evidence for false class consciousness. It is just a biased assumption that the working-class are blind to their oppression.
What do all Feminists believe?
All Feminists believe that women are subordinate in society
Different feminist viewpoints disagree about the cause of this subordination.
What key explanation do all feminists share?
All feminists share the use of patriarchy as a key explanation of society.
According to Liberal Feminists, what causes differences between men and women?
Differences between men and women are due to socialization.
How are behaviors reinforced according to Liberal Feminists?
Behaviors are reinforced by sexist laws and rules.
What is the proposed solution by Liberal Feminists for achieving sexual equality?
The non-gendered socialization of children and the introduction of laws ensuring sexual equality.
What do Liberal Feminists believe is an important step in achieving sexual equality?
Women should be allowed to hold office in religious organizations.
Who do Radical Feminists believe is responsible for women’s oppression?
Men are the ones responsible for women’s oppression.
What do men benefit from according to Radical Feminists?
Men benefit from women’s low socio-economic status.
What does Daly (1973) state about religion?
Religion is infused with patriarchal ideology.
What have feminists identified about religion’s role in society?
Religion helps men maintain their dominance over women in society.
What do Marxist Feminists believe reinforces a woman’s inferior status?
Capitalism reinforces a woman’s inferior status.
How do women contribute to men’s work according to Marxist Feminists?
Women provide free domestic labor, allowing men to work longer hours.
What role does the church play according to Marxist Feminists?
The church reinforces traditional gender roles that serve the interests of the ruling capitalist class.
What is a significant evidence of patriarchy in religions?
Places of Worship segregate the sexes and marginalise women. For example, in Islam, menstruating women are not allowed to touch the Gur’an.
How do religious laws and customs reflect patriarchy?
They often restrict women’s rights, such as the Catholic Church’s ban on abortion and artificial contraception. Woodhead stated that the banning of women from the priesthood is a sign of the church’s position on the emancipation of women.
What is Simone de Beauvoir’s view on religion in modern society?
Religion is an instrument of oppression. She argues that women are secured by religion from realizing themselves as equal to men.
According to de Beauvoir, how does religion affect women’s status?
Religion maintains a ‘status quo’ in which women are unequal. This is reflected in the way women are confined within religious structures.
What role do women play in the perpetuation of religious beliefs?
Women introduce children to religious beliefs.
This socialization reinforces the existing gender roles within religious contexts.
Feminism: evaluation
Ethnocentrism
Need to be careful when interpreting religious practices from different cultures. Ethnocentrism can lead to biased interpretations of practices that may be misunderstood without cultural context.
Feminism: evaluation
Methods of interpretation
Methods that focus on understanding the meanings behind practices from the perspective of believers. These methods contrast with macro studies that look at broader societal impacts.
Feminism: evaluation
Relevance in todays society
Women are essential in maintaining religion by looking after and educating the children. This suggests that women’s roles are crucial for the continuity of religious practices.
For example, Liberal feminism where women can now be priests. This reflects changing attitudes towards women’s roles in religious leadership.
What is a Postmodern Society?
A society characterized by various developments in technology, consumer behavior, mobility, and globalization. Sociologists have identified these characteristics as key to understanding postmodernism.
What technological advancement is significant in postmodern society?
Improved information technology; the internet. This advancement has transformed communication and access to information.
What trend is observed in consumer behavior in a postmodern society?
More individualized purchasing of goods. Consumers are increasingly making personalized choices in their buying habits.
What is a notable change regarding the movement of people in postmodern society?
Higher volume of movement of people in and out of the country
This reflects increased migration and travel patterns.
How is globalization characterized in a postmodern context?
The world is becoming more interconnected This includes the sharing of trade, ideas, and resources across borders.
What impact has postmodernism had on religious organizations?
Decline in previously dominant religious organizations Traditional institutions have seen a reduction in their influence.
What has emerged alongside the decline of dominant religious organizations?
Growth of fundamentalism in all world religions
This indicates a reaction to the perceived loss of traditional values.
What new phenomena have arisen in the realm of religion in postmodern society?
Spread of new types of religious organizations, movements, and networks
These often reflect diverse spiritual needs and beliefs.
What is modernity associated with in terms of societal structure?
Authoritative institutions providing a metanarrative
These institutions attempt to explain various aspects of society.
What do metanarratives in modernity aim to account for?
All aspects of society
They serve as overarching stories that help people understand their place in the world.
What are sacred texts?
Religious documents that convey the teachings and beliefs of a religion
Sacred texts are interpreted by highly-regarded religious authorities.
What is globalization?
The process by which the world is becoming increasingly interconnected through cultural exchange
This includes the exchange of information and beliefs.
What impact does globalization have on metanarratives?
It may lead to a decline in metanarratives as individuals are exposed to various beliefs and practices
This exposure may cause them to favor some over others.
What is fundamentalism?
A movement within religions that advocates for a return to the basics of the religion
Followers often see it as a way to return to a ‘golden age’.
How do fundamentalists interpret religious texts?
They often involve a literal interpretation and strict moral codes of behaviour
This may include viewing the past as an ideal template for the future.
What is the belief of Jehovah’s Witnesses regarding the Bible?
They believe in the Bible as the ultimate word of God, disregarding other religious speculation.
They focus solely on biblical teachings.
What trend is observed in the growth of religions?
There is a growth of fundamentalism in all world religions
This trend is characterized by a return to traditional beliefs and practices.
What do followers of fundamentalism tend to look to as a model for the future?
The past, as the ‘golden age’ of their religion
This perspective shapes their understanding and practice of faith.
What is one effect of increased cultural exchange due to globalization?
A potential decline in dominant religious beliefs
Individuals may adopt new beliefs that resonate more with them.
What type of organizations are spreading in the context of globalization?
New types of religious organizations, movements, and networks
These may include various interpretations and practices of faith.
Postmodernism: spiritual supermarket
Coyle argues the western world seems inundated with many different spiritual choices and teachers, and most people seem to be shopping around in the supernatural supermarket. It seems very hard to stay focused on a spiritual path, even if it seems like the right one.
Postmodernism: evaluation
The relativisation of truth: Bruce rejects the view that faith in science and reason is dead and all truth carry equal weight. Although people nowadays are much more cautious about the consequence of science, Bruce denies this amounts to the wholesale rejection of the meta narrative of science and the relativisation of thought.
Consumption of individualism: Bruce accepts that greater wealth and consumer choice has allowed people to create what they see as their own particular identities. However, he criticises postmodernists for ignoring the possibility that consumers may be manipulated by advertising to purchase items of mass consumption and to de this as an expression of individuality.
