Behaviourism

Question 1

classical conditioning

Answer 1

A form of learning in which a response becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus.

Question 2

conditioned response

Answer 2

A response that becomes associated with a stimulus through learning.

Question 3

conditioned stimulus

Answer 3

A previously neutral stimulus that becomes associated with a response.

Question 4

continuous reinforcement

Answer 4

A schedule of reinforcement in which the desired behavior is reinforced each time that it occurs.

Question 5

cue

Answer 5

In Dollard and Miller’s theory, a specific stimulus that tells the organism when, where, and how to respond.

Question 6

discrimination

Answer 6

In behavior theory, the ability to tell the difference between stimuli that are and are not reinforced.

Question 7

drive

Answer 7

The psychological correlate of a need or stimulus that impels an organism into action. In Freud’s theory, a psychological representation of an inner bodily source of excitement characterized by its source, impetus, aim, and object. In Dollard and Miller’s theory, a strong stimulation that produces discomfort.

Question 8

drive reduction

Answer 8

A concept formulated by Hull that suggests that learning occurs only if an organism’s response is followed by the reduction of some need or drive.

Question 9

empiricism

Answer 9

The philosophical view that human knowledge arises slowly in the course of experience through observation and experiment.

Question 10

extinction

Answer 10

The tendency of a response to disappear when it is not reinforced.

Question 11

fixed reinforcement

Answer 11

A schedule of reinforcement in which the time period or number of responses before reinforcement is identical.

Question 12

frustration

Answer 12

In Dollard and Miller’s theory, an emotion that occurs when one is unable to reduce a drive because the response that would satisfy it has been blocked.

Question 13

generalized conditioned reinforcers

Answer 13

In Skinner’s theory, learned reinforcers that have the power to reinforce a great number of different behaviors.

Question 14

habit

Answer 14

In Dollard and Miller’s theory, the basic structure of personality: a learned association between a stimulus and a response that makes them occur together frequently.

Question 15

hierarchy of response

Answer 15

In Dollard and Miller’s theory, a tendency for certain responses to occur before other responses.

Question 16

interval reinforcement

Answer 16

A schedule of reinforcement in which the organism is reinforced after a certain time period has elapsed, regardless of the response rate.

Question 17

law of effect

Answer 17

A law formulated by Thorndike that states that a behavior or a performance accompanied by satisfaction tends to increase and a behavior or performance accompanied by frustration tends to decrease.

Question 18

learning dilemma

Answer 18

In Dollard and Miller’s theory, the situation an individual is placed in if present responses are not reinforced.

Question 19

negative reinforcement

Answer 19

Unpleasant or aversive stimuli that can be changed or avoided by certain behavior.

Question 20

operant behavior

Answer 20

In Skinner’s theory, a response that acts on the environment and is emitted without a stimulus necessarily being present.

Question 21

operant conditioning

Answer 21

In Skinner’s theory, the process by which an operant response becomes associated with a reinforcement through learning.

Question 22

overt behavior

Answer 22

Behavior that can be observed by an external observer.

Question 23

positive reinforcement

Answer 23

Anything that serves to increase the frequency of a response.

Question 24

primary drive

Answer 24

A drive associated with a physiological process that is necessary for the organism’s survival.

Question 25

primary reinforcer

Answer 25

A reinforcer that is inherently rewarding as it satisfies a primary drive.

Question 26

psychological behaviorism

Answer 26

Staats’s theory of personality, which translates personality concepts into behavioral language.

Question 27

punishment

Answer 27

An undesirable consequence that follows a behavior and is designed to stop or change it.

Question 28

radical behaviorism

Answer 28

A label that has been given to B. F. Skinner’s point of view.

Question 29

ratio reinforcement

Answer 29

A schedule of reinforcement in which the organism is reinforced after a number of appropriate responses.

Question 30

reciprocal inhibition

Answer 30

In behavior therapy, introducing a competitive response that will interfere with the original maladaptive response.

Question 31

reinforcement

Answer 31

The process of increasing or decreasing the likelihood of a particular response.

Question 32

reinforcer

Answer 32

Any event that increases or decreases the likelihood of a particular response.

Question 33

respondent behavior

Answer 33

In Skinner’s theory, reflexes or automatic responses elicited by a stimulus.

Question 34

response

Answer 34

A behavior that results from a stimulus. In Dollard and Miller’s theory, one’s reaction to a cue or stimulus.

Question 35

satiation

Answer 35

Entails permitting the behavior to occur until the individual tires of it.

Question 36

schedule of reinforcement

Answer 36

A program for increasing or decreasing the likelihood of a particular response.

Question 37

secondary drive

Answer 37

A drive that is learned or acquired on the basis of a primary drive.

Question 38

secondary reinforcer

Answer 38

A reinforcer that is originally neutral but that acquires reward value on the basis of association with a primary reinforcer.

Question 39

shaping

Answer 39

In Skinner’s theory, a process by which an organism’s behavior is gradually molded until it approximates the desired behavior.

Question 40

species-specific behavior

Answer 40

Complex, rather than reflex, automatic behaviors that occur in all members of a species.

Question 41

spontaneous recovery

Answer 41

Following extinction, the return of a learned behavior.

Question 42

systematic desensitization

Answer 42

In behavior therapy, conditioning a patient to stop responding to a stimulus in an undesired manner and to substitute a new response.

Question 43

time-out

Answer 43

Psychological intervention that eliminates undesired behavior by removing the individual from the situation in which the undesired behavior is occurring.

Question 44

token economy

Answer 44

A community based on Skinnerian principles in which individuals are rewarded for appropriate behavior with tokens that can be exchanged for various privileges.

Question 45

unconditioned response

Answer 45

A reflex or automatic response to a stimulus.

Question 46

unconditioned stimulus

Answer 46

A stimulus that normally elicits a particular reflex or automatic response.

Question 47

Walden II

Answer 47

Behaviorally engineered society designed by a benevolent psychologist who employed a program of positive reinforcements.

Question 48

Describe how behaviour and learning theorists study personality experimentally

Answer 48

Behaviour and leaning theories explore personality experimentally by studying behaviour in laboratory settings. Their precise methods reflect an empirical point of view and the careful manipulation of variables under specified controlled conditions.

Question 49

Identify the early contributions of Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, and Hull.

Answer 49

Early behaviourists include Pavlov, who explained the process of classical conditioning; Watson, whose theory recommended an emphasis on overt behaviour; Thorndike, who formulated the law of effect; and Hill, who clarified the concept of drive reduction.

Question 50

Define and give examples of habits, drives, and reinforcers.

Answer 50

Dollard and Miller described the structure of personality in terms of habits that may be learned and unlearned. They distinguish between primary and secondary drives and reinforcers as the primary motivating forces of personality.

Question 51

Describe the four main conceptual parts of the learning process

Answer 51

The learning process can be broken down into 4 main conceptual parts: drive, cue, response, and reinforcement.

Question 52

Discuss findings from the research into the learning process.

Answer 52

A number of experiments have been conducted on the learning process, especially in the area of frustration and conflict. Experiments with infrahuman species have been quite successful in predicting the behaviour of simple laboratory animals under controlled situations.

Question 53

Explain how Dollard and Miller have integrated learning theory and psychoanalysis.

Answer 53

Dollard and Miller have adapted many Freudian concepts and integrated them into learning theory. Unconscious processes are re-conceived as unlabelled drives and cues. The defence mechanisms and critical stages of development are also re-conceived in terms of learning process. The translation, though inexact, has helped to popularize Freud and stimulate experimental study of his ideas.

Question 54

Describe Dollard and Miller’s practice of psychotherapy.

Answer 54

Dollard and Miller’s therapy represents a bridge to the more directive and active therapies of other learning theories. Behaviour therapy involves unlearning ineffective habits and substituting more adaptive responses.

Question 55

Evaluate Dollard and Miller from the viewpoints of philosophy, science and art

Answer 55

Dollard and Miller’s theory seeks to emulate a scientific model and places a great deal of emphasis on empirical research.

Question 56

Explain why Skinner emphasizes overt behaviour and avoids developing a theory of personality.

Answer 56

Skinner chose to describe variables and forces in the environment that shape overt behaviour. He believed that the term ‘personality’ and concepts of internal structure are ultimately superfluous and that behaviour is best understood as responses to the environment

Question 57

Describe the process of operant conditioning, and compare it with classical conditioning.

Answer 57

Operant conditioning involves reinforcing and shaping spontaneous responses. It differs from classical conditioning in the nature of the behaviour which is freely made rather than elicited by a stimulus, and in the nature of the reinforcement, which follows rather than precedes the behaviour.

Question 58

Distinguish among different schedules and types of reinforcement, and indicate their effectiveness.

Answer 58

Skinner described three schedules of reinforcement: continuous, interval and ratio. Continuous is effective for initially developing a behaviour. Interval and ration are more effective for maintaining the behaviour. Skinner described the effects of generalized conditioned reinforces and he distinguished among positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment.

Question 59

Discuss Skinner’s concept of behaviour modification and explain how it has been successfully employed

Answer 59

Behaviour modification seeks to restructure the environment so that undesired behaviours are eliminated and more desired ones substituted. Skinner’s approach has been successful in situations in which traditional insight methods are inapplicable. His methods have also been used in therapeutic communities, education, and industry.

Question 60

Describe Skinner’s concept of a utopian society.

Answer 60

Skinner advocated the development of a social utopia, a behavioural engineered society in which a program of positive reinforcers would shape behaviour.

Question 61

Show how Skinner’s position includes philosophical assumptions as well as scientific statements.

Answer 61

Skinner’s utopian speculations reflect philosophical assumptions as well as scientific generalizations by not allowing for any exceptions and by invoking the values and ethical commitments

Question 62

Evaluate Skinner’s theory from the viewpoints of philosophy, science, and art.

Answer 62

Skinner’s theory clearly evolved from experimental laboratory investigations and emulates a strict scientific approach. However, Skinner acknowledged the philosophical assumptions that underlie his theory.