Behavioural Sciences Flashcards
1
Q
Absolute poverty
A
do not have enough resources to acquire basic necessities (ex. food, shelter, water etc.)
2
Q
Absolute threshold
A
the minimum stimulus energy needed to activate a sensory system
3
Q
Accommodation
A
existing schema are modified to encompass new information
4
Q
Acetylcholine
A
voluntary muscle control
5
Q
Achieved status
A
status gained by individual action
6
Q
Acquisition
A
classical conditioning, when a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus
7
Q
Actor-observer bias
A
tendency to make situational attributions about self, but dispositional attributions about others
8
Q
Adaption (perception)
A
decrease in stimulus perception after long duration of exposure
9
Q
Adaption (learning)
A
the process by which new information is processed, assimilation and accommodation
10
Q
Adaptive value
A
the extent to which a trait benefits a species by influencing evolutionary fitness
11
Q
Affect
A
the experience and display of emotion
12
Q
Ageism
A
prejudice or discrimination on the basis of age
13
Q
Aggression
A
behavior with intent to cause harm or increase social dominance
14
Q
Agnosia
A
the loss of the ability to recognize objects, people or sounds
15
Q
Alcohol myopia
A
the inability to think about consequences due to alcohol intoxication
16
Q
Alertness
A
state of consciousness where one is awake and aware, arousal
17
Q
Algorithm
A
a formula for solving a certain type of problem
18
Q
Aligning action
A
impression management strategy, one makes behavior acceptable through excuses
19
Q
Alter-casting
A
impression management strategy, imposing identity on another person
20
Q
Altruism
A
helping with the benefit others at the cost to themselves
21
Q
Alzheimer’s disease
A
dementia, memory loss, neurofibrillary tangles, B-amyloid plaques
22
Q
Amphetamine
A
stimulant, increases dopamine and norepinephrine
23
Q
Amygdala
A
in limbic system, important for aggression, fear
24
Q
Anomie
A
state of normlessness, erode social solidarity by excessive individualism, social inequality, isolation
25
Anterograde amnesia
cannot establish new long-term memories
26
Aphasia
deficit of language production or comprehension
27
Appraisal model
theory that believes our appraisal of a situation causes an emotion, there are biologically predetermined expressions
28
Archetype
in Jungian psychoanalysis, thought or image that has an emotional element, part of collective subconscious`
29
Arcuate fasciculus
bundle of axons that connects Wernicke's area to Broca's area
30
Arousal
state of consciousness where one is awake and aware, alertness
31
Arousal theory (Yerkes-Dodson law)
theory of motivation, there is a level of arousal for optimal performance
32
Ascribed status
status given at birth
33
Assimilation
psychology, new information is interpreted in terms of existing schemata
sociology, behavior and culture of a group merges with that of another group
34
Associative learning
connection made between two stimuli or a stimulus and a response (classical and operant conditioning)
35
Attachement
emotional bond, 4 styles (secure, avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized)
36
Attitude
tendency toward expression of a positive or negative feeling
37
Attribute substitution
phenomenon where individuals substitute a complex judgement for a simpler perception
38
Attribution theory
tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other's behaviour
39
Auditory cortex
region in temporal lobe devoted to sound processing
40
Auditory pathway
sound is processed by MGN, auditory cortex, superior olive, inferior colliculus
41
Authentic self
who someone actually is
42
Autonomy
ethical tenet, physician has to respect patient choices
43
Availability heuristic
shortcut in decision making that relies on information that is most readily available
44
Avoidance learning
negative reinforcement where one avoids unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen
45
Babbling
precursor to language known to spontaneously occur in children
46
Back stage
in dramaturgical approach, where players are free from role requirements
47
Barbiturate
drug that act as a CNS depressant
48
Basal ganglia
part of forebrain, coordinates muscle movement, routes information from cortex to brain and spinal cord
49
Base-rate fallacy
using stereotypes instead of actual numerical information to make a decision
50
Basic model
Charles Darwin, emotions are universal and should be similar across cultures
51
Behaviorism
Skinner, behaviors are conditioned
52
Belief perseverance
inability to reject a belief despite clear evidence to the contrary
53
Beneficence
ethical tenet, physician must act in the patient's best interest
54
Benzodiazepine
CNS depressant
55
Bipolar disorders
mania and depression
56
Bottom-up processing
object recognition by parallel-processing and feature detection
57
Brainstem
midbrain and hindbrain, controls autonomic nervous system
58
Broca's area
motor function of speech, in inferior frontal gyrus, left hemisphere
59
Bureaucracy
formal organization that divides work to perform goals efficiently
60
Bystander effect
when in a group individuals are less likely to respond to a person in need
61
Cannon-Bard theory
we physiologically react and experience associated emotions at the same time
62
Cataplexy
loss of muscle control caused by an emotional trigger
63
Catatonia
disorganized motor behavior
64
Cerebellum
part of hindbrain, maintains posture, balance, coordinates movement
65
Cerebral cortex
complex perceptual, behavioral ad cognitive processes
66
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
aqueous solution where the brain and spinal cord rest, produced by ependymal cells
67
Cerebrum
contains cerebral cortex, limbic system, and basal ganglia
68
Characteristic institution
the social structure or institution about which societies are organized
69
Chemoreceptors
respond to chemical stimuli
70
Choice shift
group polarization (describes the group behaviour change)
71
Circular reaction
repetitive action that achieves a desired response (Piaget's sensorimotor stage)
72
Class consciousness
recognition of a need for collective political action by the working class
73
Classical conditioning
associative learning which uses a neutral stimulus and associates it with an unconditioned stimulus to become a conditioned stimulus
74
Cocaine
decreases re-uptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, amphetamine
75
Cognition
how we think and respond to the world
76
Cognitive appraisal
the evaluation of a stressful situation, consists of primary and secondary appraisal
77
Cognitive dissonance
the simultaneous presence of two opposing thought or opinions
78
Cognitive reassociation model
a model of aggression which states that we are more likely to respond aggressively when experiencing negative emotions
79
Collective unconscious
in Jungian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious mind that is shared among all humans
80
Colliculi
two structures in midbrain involved in sensorimotor reflexes (superior and inferior)
81
Superior colliculus
receives visual sensory input
82
Inferior colliculus
receives auditory sensory input, reflexive reactions to auditory input
83
Compliance
a change of behaviour of an individual at the request of another
84
Concordance rates
the presence of a trait in both twins
85
Conduction aphasia
injury to the arcuate fasciculus
86
Confirmation bias
focusing on information that supports a given belief and ignores evidence against it
87
Conflict theory
focuses on power differentials that produce a social order
88
Conciousness
awareness of oneself
89
Conservation
develops when a child can identify the difference between quantity by number and actual amount
90
Constancy
the tendency to see familiar objects as having standard shape, size, colour, or location regardless of changes in the angle of perspective, distance, or lighting (ex. snow)
91
Context effect
a retrieval cue, memory is aided when a person is in the location where encoding took place
92
Contralateral
opposite side of body
93
Controlled (conscious) processing
processing method used when a task requires complete attention
94
Correspondent inference theory
people pay closer attention to intentional behaviour and not accidental behaviour when making attributions
95
Cortical homunculus
map that relates regions of the brain to anatomical regions of the body
96
Critical period
time during development where exposure to language is essential (between 2yrs-puberty)
97
Crystallized intelligence
the ability to make use of acquired knowledge
98
Cues
indicators of the underlying cause of a behaviour (consistency cues, consensus cues, difference cues)
99
Cultural capital
benefits one receives from knowledge, abilities and skills
100
Cultural diffusion
spread of norms and beliefs through a culture
101
Cultural relativism
theory that social groups and cultures must be studied on their own to be understood
102
Cultural sensitivity
respecting differences between cultures
103
Cultural syndrome
shared set of beliefs and values found among people who speak the same language and share geography
104
Cultural transmission
means by which society socializes its members
105
Culture
beliefs, behaviours, actions and characteristics of a group or society of people
106
Culture shock
dramatic cultural differences seen when travelling out of ones society
107
Deductive reasoning
start with statement or hypothesis and test to see if true
108
Defense mechanism
in Freudian psychoanalysis, technique used by ego that distorts reality in order to resolve anxiety caused by id and superego
109
Deindividuation
people lose sense of self-awareness and can act differently based on the influence of a group
110
Delirium
fluctuation in cognitive function, reversible, non psychological cause
111
Delusions
false beliefs
112
Demographic transition
transition from high birth and mortality rates to lower birth and mortality rates
113
Depressant
any substance that reduces nervous system function
114
Depressive disorder
major depression, disorder, seasonal affective disorder
115
Depressive episode
at least two weeks of prominent depressed mood
116
Deviance
violation of norms
117
DSM
guide by which most psychological disorders are characterized (current edition: DSM-5)
118
Diencephalon
part of prosencephalon, becomes thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland
119
Differential association theory
deviance can be learned through interactions with others who are deviant
120
Disconfirmation principle
the idea that if evidence during testing does not confirm hypothesis, the hypothesis is discarded
121
Discriminative stimulus
a stimulus which indicates the opportunity for reward
122
Dishabituation
sudden increase in response to a stimulus, resensitization (due to change in stimulus)
123
Displacement
defense mechanism by which undesired urges are transferred from one target to another
124
Display rules
cultural expectations of how emotions can be expressed
125
Dispositional (internal) attributions
Attributions that relate to the decisions or personality of the person whose behaviour is being concerned
126
Dissociative disorders
perceived separation from identity or environment
127
Distant networks
networks that are composed of weaker ties
128
Distress
stress response to unpleasant stressors
129
Divided attention
ability to attend to multiple stimuli simultaneously
130
Dominant hemisphere
analytic, language, logic, math skills, mostly left hemisphere
131
Dopamine
smooth movements, steady posture, reward pathway, psychosis
132
Dramaturgical approach
impression management strategy theory that represent the world as a stage and actors performing to an audience
133
Dreaming
occurs in stage 3, stage 4 and REM, (theories: activation-synthesis theory, problem-solving dream theory, cognitive process dream theory
134
Drive reduction theory
motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable internal states
135
Dual-coding theory
both visual and verbal associations are used to encode and retrieve information
136
Duplicity theory of vision
the retina contains two types of specialized cells
137
Dyssomnia
sleep disorder where one has difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep or avoiding sleep
138
Ecstasy
MDMA, CNS stimulant (amphetamine and hallucinogen)
139
Ego
part of the unconscious that mediates urges from id and supergo
140
Egocentrism
self-centered, (Piaget's preoperational stage)
141
Elaboration likelihood model
describes ways in which people are persuaded/ attitudes change (peripheral route processing vs. central route processing)
142
Peripheral route processing
person is convinced by something other than the content of the message
143
Central route processing
person is convinced by the content of the message
144
Elaborative rehearsal
association of information in short-term memory to information already in long-term memory, to aid in long-term memory storage
145
EEG
studies electrical patterns of the brain
146
Empathy-altruism hypothesis
theory that one individual helps another when they feel empathy for the other person
147
Encoding
process of preparing information for storage (automatic or effortful)
148
Endorphins
natural painkillers
149
Epinephrine
fight or flight
150
Errors of growth
misuse of grammar seen in children during language development
151
Escape learning
negative reinforcement in which one reduces the unpleasantness of something that already exists
152
Esteem support
affirming qualities and skills of the person as part of social support
153
Ethnic enclave
locations with a high concentration of one specific ethnicity than can often slow assimilation
154
Ethnicity
social construct that sorts people by cultural factors
155
Ethnocentrism
making judgement about other cultures based on one own culture
156
Eustress
stress to positive conditions
157
Evolutionary stable strategy
a strategy that once adopted uses natural selective pressure to prevent alternate strategies
158
Exchange theory
an extension of rational choice theory that focuses on groups, behaviour is engaged in based on expectancy of future rewards/punishment
159
Expectancy-value theory
amount of motivation is based on the expectation of success and how valuable the goal is
160
Explicit memory
requires conscious recall (semantic and episodic memory)
161
Semantic memory
facts
162
Episodic memory
experiences
163
Extinction
in classical conditioning, decrease in response due to repeated presentation with no unconditioned stimulus
164
Extrapyramidal system
part of basal ganglia that modulates motor activity
165
Extraversion
in trait theory, the degree to which someone is able to tolerate social interaction
166
Extrinsic motivation
motivation that is external (rewards and punishments)
167
False consciousness
a misconception of one's actual position in society
168
Fertility rate
the average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime in a population
169
Fisherian selection
when a trait with no impact or negative impact on survival becomes more common
170
Fixation
overindulgence or frustration during a psychosexual stage causing a neurotic pattern based on that stage
171
Flat effect
behaviour that shows virtually no signs of emotion or affective expression
172
Fluid intelligence
ability to think logically in novel situations
173
Forebrain
associated with complex processes, emotion and memory
174
Fornix
projection from the hippocampus that connects to other nuclei in the limbic system
175
Front stage
in dramaturgical approach where players are in front of an audience
176
Frontal lobe
prefrontal cortex and motor cortex
177
Functional attitudes theory
theory that attitudes serve 4 functions (knowledge, ego expression, adaption, ego defense)
178
Functional fixedness
inability to identify uses for objects beyond its usual purpose (cannot think outside the box)
179
Functionalism
how parts of society fit together via manifest functions and latent functions
180
Manifest functions
intentional, to help part of the system
181
Latent functions
unintentional, to help the system
182
Fundamental attribution error
bias toward making dispositional attribution rather than situational attributions when analyzing another person's behaviour
183
Game theory
model that explains social interaction and decision making as a game
184
GABA
inhibitory and stabilizing neurotransmitter
185
Ganglia
collection of cell bodies found in PNS
186
Gemeinshaft
groups that share beliefs, ancestry, geography
187
Gesellshaft
groups that work together towards a common goal
188
General adaption syndrome
3 stage bodily response to stress (alarm, resistance, exhaustion), Selye
189
Gentrification
renewing low income areas by the upper class
190
Gestalt principles
governed by Law of Pragnaz, ways for the brain to infer missing parts of a picture when it is incomplete
191
Glutamate
excitatory neurotransmitter in CNS
192
Glycine
inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS
193
Group conformity
compliance to a group's goals even if in contrast to an individuals goals
194
Group polarization
the tendency toward decisions that are more extreme
195
Groupthink
tendency of groups to make decisions based on ideas within the group within considering outside ideas
196
Gyrus
ridge of the cerebral cortex
197
Habituation
decrease in response caused by repeated exposure
198
Hallucinations
perceptions that not due to external stimuli
199
Hallucinogens
drugs that cause distortion of reality (LSD, mushrooms)
200
Halo effect
judging character based on overall impression
201
Heuristic
rule of thumb or shortcut used to make decisions
202
Hierarchy of salience
letting situations dictate which identity is most important in a given moment
203
Hindbrain
portion of brain that controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion
204
Hippocampus
part of limbic system, memory, learning
205
Humanistic theory
emphasizes the good in humans
206
Hypnagogic hallucinations
hallucinations occurring when going to sleep (seen in narcolepsy)
207
Hypnopompic hallucinations
hallucinations occurring when awakening from sleeping (seen in narcolepsy)
208
Hypnosis
altered state of consciousness where person appears to be awake but is in a highly suggestible state
209
Hypothalamus
portion of forebrain that controls homeostatic and endocrine functions
210
Id
part of unconscious resulting from basic urges, seeks gratification
211
Ideal self
who we want to be
212
Identity
a piece of an individual's self-concept based on the groups which that person belongs to
213
Identity shift effect
when an individual conforms to a group and their identity must shift to avoid/reduce cognitive dissonance
214
Immediate networks
networks with strong ties
215
Implicit memory
memory that does not require conscious recall, skills and conditioned behaviour
216
Implicit personality theory
people tend to observe traits of others and make assumptions of their personality
217
Impression management
behaviours that influence the perceptions of other people
218
Incentive thoery
behaviour is motivated by the desire to pursue rewards and avoid punishments
219
Incidence
number of new cases of a disease per at risk population in a given time
220
Inclusive fitness
measure of reproductive success, number of offspring, how well offspring is supported, how well offspring can support others
221
Individual discrimination
one persona discriminating against a person or group
222
Inductive reasoning
starts with observations to develop a conclusion/theory
223
Information-processing model
to explain and describe human cognition (4 components: information intake, information analysis, situational modification, content/complexity of problem)
224
Informational support
support given by providing information
225
Ingratiation
impression management strategy that uses flattery to increase acceptance
226
In-group
social group to which a person identifies with
227
Insomnia
sleep disorder characterized by inability to fall asleep or stay asleep
228
Instinct theory
people are driven to engage in behaviours based on evolutionarily programmed instincts
229
Instinctive drift
tendency of animals to resist learning when a conditioned behaviour conflicts with animal's instinctive behaviour
230
Institutional discrimination
discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution
231
Interaction process analysis
observing and immediately classifying activities of small groups
232
Interference
retrieval error caused by learning information (proactive or retroactive)
233
Proactive interference
old information causes difficulty in learning new information
234
Retroactive interference
new information causes difficulty in learning old information
235
Internalization
changing behaviour to fit with group while also agreeing with the ideas of group
236
Interneuron
between sensory and motor neurons, involved in reflex arcs
237
Interpersonal attraction
the force that makes people like each other
238
Intersectionality
the interconnectedness of social categorizations
239
Intrinsic motivation
motivation that comes from within
240
Ipsilateral
on the same side of the body
241
Iron law of oligarchy
democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally sift to being ruled by an elite group
242
James-Lange theory
physiological responses occur first and are the cause of emotions (physiological > emotion), emotions are the result of arousal
243
Just noticeable difference (jnd)
the minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before once can perceive the difference
244
Just-world hypothesis
good things happen to good people, bad things happen to bad people
245
Labeling theory
says that labels given to people affect how people respond to that person and the person's self-image
246
Language acquisition device (LAD)
innate capacity for language acquisition triggered by exposure to language (nativist perspective)
247
Latent learning
learning that occurs without a reward but is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced
248
Learned helplessness
a state of resignation resulting from being unable to avoid repeated negative stimuli (model of depression)
249
Learning (behaviorist) theory
attitudes are developed through forms of learning (direct contact, direct interaction, direct instruction, and conditioning)
250
Libido
the sex or life drive
251
Life course approach to health
approach to health that includes analyzing a patient's entire history
252
Limbic system
portion of the cerebrum that is associated with emotion and memory (amygdala and hippocampus)
253
Linguistic relativity hypothesis (Whorfian hypothesis)
hypothesis that suggests sense of reality is determined by language
254
Locus of control
the characterization of the source of influence in one's life (internal or external)
255
Long-term memory
information that is sufficiently rehearsed or impactful (implicit and explicit)
256
Long-term potentiation
strengthening of neural connection due to rehearsal (basis of long-term memory)
257
Looking-glass self
self is developed through interpersonal reactions
258
Magnocellular cells
vision processing cells that have high temporal resolution and detect motion
259
Maintenance rehearsal
repetition of information to keep it within working memory or to store it
260
Malthusian theory
theory of demographic transition that focuses on how population growth can outpace food supply
261
Managing appearance
impression management strategy using props to create a positive image
262
Manic episode
period of at least 1 week with elevated or expansive mood
263
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
certain needs yield a greater influence on motivation
264
Master status
status with which a person identifies the most with
265
Mate bias
how choosy members of a species are when choosing a mate (direct and indirect benefits of mate selection)
266
Material support
providing economic or other physical resources to aid a person
267
Mating system
the way which a group organizes its sexual behaviour
268
McDonaldization
shift towards efficiency, predictability and control in societies
269
Meditation
state of consciousness entered voluntarily, decreased arousal and quieting of the mind
270
Medulla oblongata
part of brainstem, regulates vital functions (breathing, hr, bp)
271
Melatonin
serotonin derivative secreted by pineal gland, sleepiness
272
Meninges
layer of connective tissue covering and protecting brain (dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater)
273
Mental set
tendency to repeat solutions that have yielded positive results in the past
274
Mere exposure effect/ familiarity effect
people prefer stimuli they have been exposed to more frequently
275
Meritocracy
society in which advancement up the social ladder is based on intellectual talent and achievement
276
Mesencephalon
embryonic portion of brain that becomes midbrain
277
Mesolimbic reward pathway
dopaminergic pathway in brain (nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, medial forebrain bundle)
278
Metencephalon
embryonic portion of brain that becomes pons and cerebellum
279
Midbrain
part of brainstem, manages sensorimotor reflexes to visual and auditory stimuli, gives rise to some cranial nerves
280
Mirror neurons
located in the frontal and parietal lobes that fire when both an individual performs and action and when an individuals sees that action performed
281
Misinformation effect
memories are altered by misleading information provided at the point of encoding or recall
282
Mnemonic
technique that aids in memory recall
283
Mood disorder
disorders characterized by disturbance in mood (depressive, substance-induced, bipolar)
284
Moral reasoning
development of moral thinking through pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional stages (Kohlberg's theory of personality development)
285
Morbidity
burden or degree of illness associated with a disease
286
Morphology
structure of works (etc. prefixes, suffixes)
287
Mortality rate
number of deaths in a population per unit time
288
Motivation
process of psychological and physical requirements, goals, or desires causing behaviour
289
Multiple intelligences
the idea that intelligence exists in multiple areas
290
Myelencephalon
embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the medulla oblongota
291
Narcolepsy
sleep disorder characterized by a lack of voluntary control over sleep onset, (cataplexy, hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations)
292
Nativist theory of language
Noam Chomsky, there is an innate capacity for language (LAD)
293
Negative symptoms
in mental illness, symptoms characterized by the absence of normal or desired behaviours
294
Neologism
coining a new word
295
Network redundancy
overlapping contact points within a social network
296
Network support
providing a sense of belonging as part of social support
297
Neurocognitive models of dreaming
models of dreaming that correlate subjective experiences with measurable physiological changes
298
Neuroleptics (anti-psychotics)
class of drugs used to treat schizophrenia by blocking dopamine receptors
299
Neuromodulator
peptides that act as signalling molecules in the CNS, slower to act and longer lasting than neurotransmitters
300
Neuroplasticity
change in neural connections caused by learning or response to injury
301
Neurosis
in Freudian theory, a disorder that occurs in response to the anxiety of a fixation during childhood that impacts personality development
302
Neuroticism
in trait theory, how prone an individual is to emotional arousal in stressful situations
303
Neurulation
stage in development where ectoderm furrows over notochord to form neural crest and neural tube
304
Night terror
intense anxiety during sleep, occurs during SWS
305
Non-dominant hemisphere
sensitivity, emotional tone of language, creativity, music, spatial processing (right hemisphere)
306
Nonmaleficience
ethical tenet that physician must avoid practices that do more harm than good
307
Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep
stages 1-4, brain waves get slower through stages
308
Norepinephrine
wakefulness, alertness
309
Norms
societal rules that define acceptable behaviour
310
Obedience
changing behaviour based on a command from someone seen as an authority figure
311
Object permanence
knowledge that an object does not cease to exist even when the object cannot be seen (occurs by end of sensorimotor stage)
312
Observational learning
behaviour is modified by watching others
313
Obsessive-compulsive disorders
feel the need to check thins repeatedly or have certain thoughts repeatedly without the ability to control
314
Occipital lobe
part of cerebral cortex that controls visual processing
315
Operant conditioning
form of associative learning in which frequency of behaviour is modified by reinforcement and punishment
316
Opiates
naturally occurring, pain-reducing drugs (opiods are synthetic versions)
317
Opponent-process theory
theory that the body will counteract repeated exposure to stimuli (ex. afterimages, ramping up the sympathetic nervous system in response to a depressant)
318
Organization
a group characterized by 5 traits (formality, hierarchy of ranked positions, large size, complex division of labor, continuity beyond its members)
319
Ought self
the way others think you should be
320
Out-group
social group with which an individual does not identify
321
Parallel play
children play alongside each other without interfering with each other
322
Parallel processing
simultaneous analysis and combining information about aspects such as color, shape and motion
323
Parasomnia
sleep disorder characterized by abnormal movements or behaviours during sleep
324
Parietal lobe
part of cerebral cortex that controls somatosensory and spatial processing
325
Parkinson's disease
slowness in movement, resting tremor, pill-rolling tremor, masklike facies, cogwheel rigidity, shuffling gait, destruction of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra
326
Parvocellular cells
visual processing cells which have high spatial resolution and detect shape
327
Peer group
group of self-selected equals that forms around common interests
328
Peer pressure
social influence placed on an individual by individuals who are considered equals
329
Personality disorders
disorders that involve patterns of behaviour that are inflexible and maladaptive causing distress or impaired function
330
Phoneme
speech sound associated with language
331
Phonology
set of sounds that compose a language
332
Piaget's theory
divided lifespan into sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
333
Pineal gland
located near thalamus, secretes melatonin
334
Pituitary gland
master gland of the endocrine system
335
Place theory
theory of sound that holds that vibration on particular areas of the basilar membrane determines perception of pitch (tonotopical organization)
336
Polyandry
mating system where female has exclusive relationship with several males
337
Polygyny
mating system where male has exclusive relationships with several females
338
Pons
part of brainstem that relays information between cortex and medulla, regulates sleep and carries some motor and sensory information from face and neck
339
Positive symptoms
behaviours, thoughts or feelings added to normal behaviour
340
Power
the capacity to influence, often based on unequal distribution of valued resources
341
Pragmatics
the ways in which use of language can be altered
342
Prevalence
the number of cases of a disease per population in a given period of time
343
Primacy effect
phenomenon of first impressions being more important than subsequent impression
344
Primary group
a group with close bonds
345
Primary stress appraisal
an initial evaluation of the environment to determine if there is an associated threat
346
Priming
retrieval cue where recall is aided by a word or phrase that is semantically related to the desired memory
347
Primitive reflexes
reflexes present in infants that disapear with age
348
Prodromal phase
a phase of poor adjustment that precedes the full onset of schizophrenia
349
Projection
a defense mechanism by which individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others
350
Projection areas
portion of the cerebral cortex that analyzes sensory input
351
Proprioception
the ability to tell where one is in space
352
Prosencephalon
the embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the forebrain
353
Prosody
rhythm, cadence, and inflection of speech
354
Prospective memory
remembering to perform a task at some point in the future
355
Proximal stimulus
a stimulus that directly interacts with and affects sensory receptors
356
Psychoanalytic theory
in personality theory, assumes that unconscious internal states motivate overt actions and determine personality
357
Psychological disorder
set of thoughts, feelings or actions that are considered deviant by the culture at hand and that cause noticeable distress
358
Psychosocial development
Erikson's theory of personality development, personality is developed based on a series of crises deriving from conflicts between needs and social demands
359
Psychoticism
in trait theory, the measure of nonconformity or social deviance of an individual
360
Race
social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups of people
361
Racial formation theory
theory that racial identity is fluid
362
Racialization
the establishment of a group as a particular race
363
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
sleep stage where eyes move rapidly and physiological arousal levels are more similar to wakefulness than sleep
364
Rational choice theory
the theory that individuals consider benefits and harms and choose the best possible action
365
Rationalization
a defense mechanism by which individuals justify undesirable behaviours in way that is socially acceptable
366
Reaction formation
a defense mechanism by which individuals suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposites
367
Reappraisal
process for ongoing monitoring for continuous stress, if the normal 2-step appraisal method does not work
368
Recency effect
phenomenon in which the most recent if formation is most important in forming impressions
369
Reciprocal determinism
behaviour influences and is influences by individual characteristics and the environment
370
Reciprocal liking
phenomenon where people like others better when they believe the other person likes them
371
Reciprocity
we like people who we think like us
372
Recognition-primed decision model
decision-making model where things already experienced play a large role in decision making (an explanation for intuition)
373
Reference group
the group to which an individual compares him or herself
374
Reflex
behaviour that occurs in response to a given stimulus without higher cognitive input
375
Reflex arc
neural pathway that controls reflex actions
376
Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)
records patterns of neural activity based on blood flow to different areas of the brain
377
Regression
defense mechanism where an individual deals with stress by reverting to an earlier developmental state
378
Reinforcement schedule
schedule by which reinforcement is administered (fixed or variable, ratio or interval)
379
Relative poverty
poverty where one is poor in comparison to the larger population
380
Reliance on central traits
tendency to see others based on traits that matter to the perceiver
381
REM rebound
phenomenon where one spends an increased time in REM following sleep deprivation
382
Representativeness heuristic
shortcut in decision making that relies on categorizing items based on representative images
383
Repression
a defense mechanism by which the ego forces undesired thoughts to the unconscious
384
Response bias
tendency of subjects to respond untruthfully due to non sensory factors
385
Reticular formation
part of the brainstem that is responsible for alertness
386
Retrieval
process of remembering information stored in long-term memory (recall, recognition, relearning)
387
Retrograde amnesia
memory loss that impacts long-term memories of events prior to injury
388
Rhombencephalon
embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the hindbrain
389
Ritual
formalized ceremony
390
Role conflict
difficulty in satisfying role requirements among various roles
391
Role partner
person one interacts with while p`laying a role
392
Role performance
carrying out the behaviours associated with a role
393
Role set
a situation where a given status has many roles associated with it
394
Role strain
difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the same role
395
Role taking
when children come to understand the perspectives of others and how that differs from themselves
396
Sanction
societally enforced punishment (formal and informal)
397
Formal sanctions
sanctions enforced by social institutions (ex. laws)
398
Informal sanctions
sanctions enforced by social behaviours (ex. ostracization)
399
Schachter-Singer theory
psychological response occurs then cognitive appraisal and then emotion is experienced
400
Schema
organized pattern of thought and behaviour (
401
Sensorimotor stage
0-2 yrs, object permanence, circular reaction
402
Preoperational stage
2-7 yrs, symbolic thinking, conservation, egocentrism
403
Concrete operational
7-11 yrs, logical, inductive logic
404
Formal operational
12+, abstract thinking, deductive logic
405
Schizophrenia
psychotic disorder charcatrrized by distortion of reality
406
Second sickness
concept by Howard Waitzkin that poor health is exacerbated by social injustice
407
Secondary group
group with weaker bond
408
Secondary stress appraisal
interpreting if one is able to cope with the threat
409
Selective attention
ability to focus on single stimulus even when other stimuli is occuring
410
Self-concept
sum of thoughts and feelings about oneself (self-schemata and appraisal of one's past and future self)
411
Self-determination theory
motivation theory based on achieving autonomy, competence and relatedness
412
Self-disclosure
in interpersonal attraction or impression management when one shared in hopes of being met with empathy
413
Self-discrepency theory
theory that we all have three selves (actual self, ideal self, ought self)
414
Self-efficacy
how capable one sees themselves, Bandura (FALL, RISE)
415
Self-enhancement
the need to maintain self worth by self-serving bias
416
Self-esteem
individual's feelings of self-worth
417
Self-fulfilling prophecy
when stereotyping creates conditions that lead to the confirmation of that stereotype
418
Self-handicapping
impression management strategy where one creates obstacles to avoid self-blame when not meeting expectations
419
Self-presentation
displaying oneself through acceptable actions and behaviours
420
Self-reference effect
tendency for individuals to best recall information they can relate to their own experiences
421
Self-schema
a self given label
422
Self-serving bias
the idea that individuals will view own success being based on internal factors and failure as based on external factors
423
Semantic network
organization of information in the brain by linking concepts with similar characteristics and meaning
424
Semanticd
meaning
425
Sensitive period
a time when environmental input has a maximal impact on the development of an ability
426
Sensory memory
visual and auditory stimuli briefly stored
427
Septal nuclei
part of limbic system, pleasure center of brain
428
Serial position effect
tendency to better remember beginning or end of a list
429
Serotonin
mood, sleep, eating, dreaming
430
Shadowing
experimental technique where participants recite speech immediately after hearing it
431
Shaping
in operant conditioning, process of conditioning a complicated behaviour by rewarding successive approximations
432
Short-term memory
memory that fades quickly, 30 seconds without rehearsal (capacity: 7+/- 2)
433
Sick role
theory that a person who is ill enters "sanctioned deviance" where they are exempt from societal norms
434
Signal detection theory
theory that psychological and environmental context plays a role in stimuli perception
435
Similarity
people like people with similar aspects
436
Situational attributions
attributions that relate to surrounds rather than the features of an individual
437
Sleep apnea
sleep disorder where a person may cease to breathe while sleeping (obstruction or neurological)
438
Sleep cycle
single complete progression through each stage of sleep (1-2-3-4-3-2-REM)
439
Slow-wave-sleep (SWS)
stage 3, stage 4 (delta-wave sleep)
440
Social action
actions individuals are conscious of and perform because others are around
441
Social capital
Investment people make in their society in return for economic or collective awards
442
Social class
category of people with shared socioeconomic background
443
Social cognitive theory
theory that attitudes are formed by observing behaviour, cognition, and the environment
444
Social construction model
theory of emotional expression that emotion are not biologically wired but based on experiences
445
Social constructionism
an approach that looks at ways in which people participate in the formation of their perceived reality
446
Social control
regulating behaviours of people
447
Social facilitation
the tendency for people to perform at a different level when others are around
448
Social institutions
established patterns of behaviour that are accepted as culture
449
Social interactionist theory
the theory that language acquisition is driven by the desire to communicate
450
Social loafing
the tendency of people to put in les effort in group settings
451
Social mobility
movement of people in social heirarchy
452
Social perception
understanding the motives of people in the social world (social cognition)
453
Social reproduction
the idea that social inequality is passed on through generations
454
Social stratification
organization of societies into hierarchical systems
455
Social support
caring for by a social network
456
Socialization
process of developing and spreads norms, customs, beliefs
457
Somatic symptom disorders
disorders marked by bodily symptoms that cause significant stress
458
Somatosensation
sense of touch (modalities: pressure, vibration, pain, temperature)
459
Somatosensory cortex
region of parietal lobe located on prostcentral gyrus and involved in somatosensory processing
460
Somnambulism
sleep disorder where one carries out actions in their sleep
461
Source-monitoring error
memory erroe where they remember details but confuses the context
462
Spacing effect
phenomenon of retaining large amount of information when the amount of time between relearning is increased
463
Spatial inequality
unequal amounts of resources depending on area
464
Spontaneous recovery
the reappearance of a conditioned response previouslt extinct
465
Spreading activation
unconscious activation of closely linked nodes of a semantic network
466
State-dependent memory
retrieval cue where memory is aided when in the same of emotion or intoxication
467
Stereocilia
structures on hair cells that sway with movement in endolymph, causing receptor potential
468
Stereotype content model
postulates that all group stereotypes form along two dimensions: (1) warmth and (2) competence
469
Stereotype threat
feeling of anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype about ones social group
470
Stereotype
attitudes or impression that are made based on superficial information
471
Stigma
extreme disaproval based on differences
472
Stimulant
a drug that increases CNS arousal
473
Storage
retention of encoded information (sensory, short-term, long-term)
474
Strain theory
theory that explains deviance is a reaction to strain between social goals and social structure
475
Structural poverty
theory that poverty is due to inadequacies in societal and economic structure
476
Subcultres
groups that distinguish themselves from primary culture
477
Sublimation
defense mechanism where urges are transformed into aocially acceptable behaviours
478
Subliminal perception
perception of a stimulus below a threshold
479
Susbtantia nigra
part of basal ganglia responsible for dopamine release
480
Sulcus
fold in the cerebral cortex
481
Superego
part of unconscious mind focused on perfectionism
482
Superior colliculus
strutcure in midbrain that receives visual input
483
Symbolic ethnicity
ethnic identity only relevant on special occasions
484
Symbolic interactionism
theoretical framework that studies ways individuals interact
485
Synaptic pruning
adjustment of neural connections
486
Syntax
the way words are ordered
487
Socioeconomic status
education, occupation, income
488
Dichotic listening
presenting two different auditory stimuli to different ears
489
SYMLOG
studying group dynamics (dom vs. sub, friendliness vs. unfriendliness, controlled vs. emotionally expressive)
490
Tactical self
in impression management, the person one markets themselves to be
491
Self-verification
tendency to seek out information consistent with one's self-concept
492
Sensory interaction
the idea that one sensory modality may influence another
493
Covariation model
an attribution model that uses consensus, consistency and distinctiveness cues
494
Neutral judge
seeing a behaviour as coming from both internal and external factors
495
ABC model
attitudes have 3 components (affective, behavioural and cognitive)
496
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
frustration turns to aggressive impulses
497
Reverse halo effect
negative impressions of a person cause you to feel negatively about that person
498
Just world hypothesis
you get what you deserve
499
Xenocentrism
judging one's culture as superior to one's own culture
500
Group favoritism
we favor people in our group but out-group we are neutral to
501
Out group derogation
friendly to in group but not friendly to out group
502
Dependency ratio
age-based measurement that takes people who are dependent and compares to people in workforce (the higher the ratio, the more dependent people)
503
Life course theory
theory about elderly that looks at aging throughout life
504
Age stratification theory
age is a way of regulating the behaviour of a generation?
505
Activity theory
theory about elderly that looks at how the older generation sees themselves
506
Disengagement theory
theory about elderly that assumed elderly get more self-absorbed as they age
507
Continuity theory
people try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives
508
World-Systems theory
importance of world as a unit (core periphery, semi-periphery)
