Behavioural Sciences Flashcards
1
Q
Where does the parasympathetic nervous system synapse, and what neurotransmitter does it use?
A
Close to the target organ
Acetylcholine is used at both synapses
2
Q
Where does the sympathetic nervous system synapse, and what neurotransmitter does it use?
A
Near the spine between T1 and L2/L3
Preganglionic neurons release ACh and postganglionic release norepinephrine
3
Q
Medulla oblongata
A
Breathing, heart rate, blood pressure (vital functions)
4
Q
Pons
A
Primarily relay of sensory and motor information
5
Q
Cerebellum
A
Posture, balance, coordinates body movements
6
Q
Bumps on the back of the midbrain:
A
Superior colliculi: visual sensory info relay
Inferior colliculi: auditory sensory info relay
7
Q
Telencephalon
A
Cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system
8
Q
Diencephalon
A
Thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, pineal gland
9
Q
Thalamus
A
Relay for all senses except smell
10
Q
Extrapyramidal motor system
A
Gathers information about body position (proprioception) and carries to CNS
11
Q
Septal Nuclei (limbic system)
A
One of the primary pleasure centres in the brain
12
Q
Amygdala
A
Aggressive behaviour, fear and rage
13
Q
Hippocampus
A
Learning and memory, long term memory consolidation
14
Q
Prefrontal cortex
A
Manages executive function, supervises processes involved with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning
15
Q
Association area
A
Integrates inputs from diverse brain regions
16
Q
Projection areas
A
Sensory processing areas
17
Q
Broca’s area
A
Speech production (frontal lobe)
18
Q
Wernicke’s area
A
Language comprehension (temporal lobe)
19
Q
Catecholamines
A
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, Dopamine - synthesized from tyrosine
20
Q
Neurulation
A
- Begins at 3-4 weeks’ gestational age
- ectoderm overlaying the notochords begins to furrow - forms a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds, furrow closes and forms the neural tube (becomes the CNS)
alar plate become sensory neurons
basal plate becomes motor neurons
21
Q
Endoderm
A
The lining of the digestive tract (epithelial cells), lungs, urinary bladder, stomach, colon, liver, pancreas
22
Q
Mesoderm
A
Skeletal muscle, bones, circulatory system, connective tissue, adipose tissue, dermis
23
Q
Ectoderm
A
CNS, PNS, epidermis, hair, nails, lens of the eye
24
Q
Rooting reflex
A
Infant turning of the head toward a stimulus that touches its cheek
25
Moro reflex
Infants react to abrupt movements of the head by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting their arms and crying - normally gone by 4 months
26
Babinski reflex
Toes spread apart when sole of foot is stimulated
27
Weber's law
States that there is a constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a jnd (just noticeable difference) and the magnitude of the original stimulus
A ratio/percent rather than a numerical value (jnd)
28
Catch trial
Signal is presented
29
Noise trial
Signal is not presented
30
Absolute threshold
Minimum intensity of a stimulus we can sense (not necessarily perceive)
31
Pathway light travels through the eye
Cornea (focuses light) - anterior chamber - iris - posterior chamber - lens - vitreous humour - retina
32
Optic chiasm
Nasal optic nerve fibers cross, lateral fibers continue and meet up with decussated nasal fibers to form the optic tract
33
Visual pathway
Optic nerve - optic chiasm - optic tract - Lateral Geniculate Nucleus of Thalamus - visual cortex
- also inputs to superior colliculus
34
Parvocellular cells
Detect shape, have very high colour spatial resolution
35
Magnocellular cells
Detect motion, have high temporal resolution
36
Pathway of sound (ear structures)
Pinna (auricle) - external auditory canal - tympanic membrane (eardrum) - ossicles (malleus [hammer], incus [anvil], stapes [stirrup]) - oval window or round window - membranous labyrinth (cochlea, vestibule, semicircular canals)
37
Vestibule
Utricle and saccule are sensitive to linear acceleration
| Detected by hair cells covered in otoliths that resist motion as body accelerates - bending - signal
38
Semicircular canals
Sensitive to rotational acceleration, sensed in the ampulla by hair cells
39
Hearing
Organ of corti bathed in endolymph and composed of thousands of hair cells sense vibrations and relay signal to brainstem via vestibulocochlear nerve
Ascend to medial geniculate nucleus then to auditory cortex - or superior olive (sound localization) - or inferior colliculus (startle reflex)
40
Pacinian corpuscles
Respond to deep pressure and vibration (fires when pressure is first administered and when it is removed)
41
Meissner corpuscles
Respond to light touch (fire when touch is first administered and when it is removed)
42
Merkle discs
Respond to deep pressure and texture (fire to constant pressure)
43
Ruffini endings
Respond to stretch (fire to constant pressure)
44
Free nerve endings
Respond to pain and temperature
45
Gate theory of pain
Proposes that there is a special "gating" mechanism that can turn pain signals on or off, affecting whether or not we perceive pain
Spinal cord can preferentially forward signals from other modalities (pressure, temp)
46
Sensory adaptation
Change over time in responsiveness to the sensory system to a constant stimulus
47
Bottom-up processing
Object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection, first time we experience something (we don't have anything to compare it to)
48
Top-down processing
Driven by memories and expectations, allows us to quickly recognize objects without recognizing their specific parts
49
Gestalt principle
a) law of proximity
b) law of similarity
c) law of good continuation
d) subjective contours
e) closure
There are ways for the brain to infer missing parts of a picture when a picture is incomplete
a) law of proximity: elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit
b) law of similarity: objects that are similar tend to be grouped together
c) law of good continuation: objects that appear to follow the same path tend to be grouped together
d) subjective contours: perceiving contours and, therefore, shapes that are not actually present in the stimulus
e) closure: when a space is enclosed by a contour it tends to be perceived as a compete figure
50
Law of prägnanz
Perceptual organization will always be regular, simple, and symmetrical as possible
51
Habituation
A decrease in response due to continued exposure to a stimulus
52
Dishabituation
Temporary recovery of a response to the original stimulus due to a second stimulus
53
Conditioned stimulus
Normally neutral stimulus that, through association, now causes a reflexive response called a conditioned response
ex. the bell in Pavlov's experience became a conditioned stimulus, salivating the conditioned response
54
Classical conditioning
Taking advantage of a reflexive, unconditioned stimulus to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus
55
Generalization
A broadening effect, by which a stimulus similar enough to the conditioned stimulus can also produce the conditioned response
56
Discrimination
Organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli
57
Operant Conditioning
a) positive reinforcers
b) negative reinforcers
operant conditioning - links voluntary behaviours with consequences - BF Skinner (behaviourism)
a) positive reinforcers: increase a behaviour by adding a positive consequence (ex. money)
b) negative reinforcers: increase the frequency of a behaviour by removing something unpleasant
*reinforcements always increase the frequency of the behaviour*
58
Escape learning
Role of behaviour is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists (ex. taking an aspirin), a negative reinforcer
59
Avoidance learning
Prevent the unpleasantness of the something that is yet to happen, negative reinforcer
60
Primary reinforcer
A naturally positive reinforcer (ex. a dolphin getting a fish)
61
Secondary reinforcer
A conditioned reinforcer (ex. clicker now associated with the dolphin getting a fish)
62
Operant conditioning
a) positive punishment
b) negative punishment
a) adds an unpleasant consequence in response to a behaviour to reduce that behaviour (ex. arrest for stealing)
b) reduction of a behaviour when a stimulus is removed, ie. something enjoyable is taken away (ex. privilege of tv is taken away to prevent a behaviour)
*punishments are always to prevent a behaviour*
63
Variable-ratio schedule
Reinforce a behaviour after a varying # of performances of the behaviour
- works the fastest (compared to fixed-ratio, fixed-interval, or variable-interval)
- also most resistant to extinction
- Very Rapid and Very Resistant to extinction
64
Shaping
Process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviours (building up to a more complex task)
65
Latent learning
Learning that occurs without a reward, but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced
66
a) Preparedness
| b) Instinctive drift
a) preparedness: an organisms predisposition to certain behaviours that make them easier to condition
b) instinctive drift: the opposite, the difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviours (trying to get a racoon to put money in a piggie bank)
67
Mirror neurons
Located in the frontal and parietal lobe, fire when one performs an action OR watches someone else perform the same action, connected with observational learning
68
Controlled processing vs. Automatic processing
Controlled processing = effortful (like studying, flashcards, notes, etc)
Automatic processing = just going about regular day, what one notices
Both associated with encoding memories
69
Self-reference effect
We tend to recall information best when we put it into context of our own lives
A form of semantic encoding (putting info into a meaningful context)
70
Memory techniques
a) mnemonics
b) method of loci
c) peg-word
d) chunking
a) mnemonics - rhyming, acronyms
b) method of loci - assigning an item to a location (walking through house each room has an item of grocery list)
c) list that is then associated with items to be memorized
d) organize into meaningful chunks
71
Short term memory
Usually only lasts ~30 seconds unless attended to, 7 plus or minus 2 rule
72
Working memory
Used to do things like math in our heads
| Few pieces of info in our conscience simultaneously
73
Elaborative rehearsal
Association of new information with previously stored information, way of adding something to long-term memory
74
Implicit memory vs. Explicit memory
Implicit memory: procedural or non-declarative, skills and conditioned responses
Explicit memory: declarative memories, divided into semantic (facts) and episodic
75
Spacing effect
Information is retained better if there is a longer period of time between sessions or relearning
76
Priming
Recall is aided by being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory
77
Context effect vs. State-dependent memory
memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place
remember things better when in the same mental state as when they were encoded (ex. intoxicated)
78
Serial position effect
More likely to remember the first (primacy effect) and last items on a list (recency effect)
79
Confabulation
process of creating vivid but fabricated memories
| a symptom of Korsakoff's syndrome along with retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia
80
Proactive interference vs. Retroactive interference
proactive interference: old information is interfering with new learning
retroactive interference: new information causes forgetting of old information
(it is what is forgotten that/ interfered with that describes it)
81
Prospective memory
Remembering to perform a task at some point in the future, elderly people have the most trouble with this type of task
82
Source amnesia
Forgetting where the memory came from (might be someone else's story viewed as ones own)
83
Synaptic pruning
As we grow older, weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered
84
Long-term potentiation
Process by which repeated stimulation of a neuron causes a stronger synaptic connection, receptor sites on the post-synaptic neuron increase, such as the process of how we learn
85
Piaget's stages of cognitive development
a) sensorimotor
b) preoperational
c) concrete operational
d) formal operational
Sensorimotor stage
0 to ~2 years
learn to manipulate environment in order to meet needs
stage ends with development of object permanence (beginning of representational thought)
Preoperational stage
~2 to ~7 years
symbolic thinking - ability to pretend
egocentism - inability to imagine what another person may think or feel
centration - tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon (ex. same quantity of pizza on two plates, but one is cut in two, child will take the one with two)
Concrete operational stage
7 to 11
- concrete thinking
- can consider perspective of others
Formal operational stage
starts at 11
- ability to think logically about abstract ideas
86
Adaptation
Process by which Piaget thought new information was processed
New information is placed into new schemata
Occurs through assimilation (classifying new info into existing schemata) or accommodation (modifying existing schemata to encompass the new info)
87
Fluid intelligence
Problem solving, peaks in early adulthood
88
Crystallized intelligence
Learned skills and knowledge, peaks in late middle adulthood
89
Delirium
Rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused by medical causes (nonpsychological) ex. low pH, infection, low blood sugar, etc
90
Mental set
The tendency to approach problems in the same way, framework for thinking about a problem
91
Functional fixedness
The inability to consider to use an object in a nontraditional manner
92
Deductive (top-down) reasoning
Deducing from a set of general rules and drawing conclusions from the information given, formal logic, conclusion is certain
93
Inductive (bottom-up) reasoning
Seeks to create a theory via generalizations, conclusion is probable
94
Heuristics
Rules of thumb
95
Base rate fallacy
Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information
96
Disconfirmation principle
When a potential solution to a problem fails during testing, it should be discarded, sometimes confirmation bias prevent one from doing so
97
Sleep stages and EEG waves associated
Complete cycle of stages lasts ~ 90 minutes
Stage 1: theta waves
Stage 2: theta waves, sleep spindles, and k complexes
Stage 3 and 4: delta waves - slow wave sleep (associated with cognitive recovery, memory consolidation [declarative], and increased GH release) - predominates at the beginning of the night
REM: predominates later in the night
98
Dreams & Theories
a) activation-synthesis theory
b) problem-solving dream theory
c) cognitive process dream theory
70% of dreams occur during REM
a) activation-synthesis theory: dreams caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry - can mimic incoming sensory info, access memories/desires
b) problem-solving dream theory: dreams are a way to solve problems while asleep
c) Cognitive process dream theory: dreams are the sleeping counterpart of consciousness
99
Dyssomnias:
Insomnia:
Narcolepsy:
Sleep Apnea:
Dyssomnias: disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep
Insomnia: difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep
Narcolepsy: lack of voluntary control over sleep onset (symptoms: cataplexy [loss of muscle control and sudden REM during waking hours], sleep paralysis, hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations [hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening]
Sleep Apnea: inability to breath during sleep
100
Parasomnias:
| include?
Parasomnias: abnormal movements or behaviours during sleep
| night terrors and sleep walking
101
Sleep deprivation
Can occur after just one night of no sleep or from many nights of poor quality sleep, when permitted to sleep normally after sleep deprivation will exhibit REM rebound, earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep
102
Benzos, barbiturates, alcohol
All depressants, increase GABA activity causing hyperpolarization of neurons via chloride channel activation
103
Amphetamines
Cause increased release of dopamine, NE, and serotonin at the synapse and decrease their reuptake
104
Cocaine
Decreases reuptake of dopamine, NE, and serotonin, anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties
105
Opiates vs opioids
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Opiates = naturally occurring (morphine and codeine)
Opioids = semisynthetic derivatives (oxycodone, hydrocodone, heroin)
```
Bind opioid receptors in peripheral and CNS causing decreased rxn to pain & sense of euphoria
106
Marijuana
THC binds cannabinoid receptors, glycine receptors, and opioid receptors
Increases GABA activity and dopamine activity
Stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen
107
Drug addiction - mesolimbic reward pathway
Include nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, medial forebrain bundle, dopaminergic pathway
108
Cocktail party phenomenon
When engaged in a convo, if we hear our name mentioned across the room we somehow perk up
Defines selective attention: we pay attention to one thing while other stimulus is processed in the background
Only if important is it brought to our attention
109
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Phonology:
Morphology:
Semantics:
Syntax:
Pragmatics:
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Phonology: actual sound of language - phonemes (categorical perception - separating phonemes from other sounds)
Morphology: structure of words (morphemes - building blocks
Semantics: association of meaning with a word
Syntax: how words are put together to form sentences
Pragmatics: dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge (prosody - rhythm, cadence, inflection)
110
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Language development:
9 to 12 months:
12 to 18 months:
18 to 20 months:
2 to 3 years:
5 years:
```
9 to 12 months: babbling
12 to 18 months: about one word per month
18 to 20 months: "explosion of language" and combining words
2 to 3 years: longer sentences (3 words or more)
5 years: language rules largely mastered
111
Language development theories
Nativist (biological) Theory:
Learning (behaviourist) Theory:
Social Interactionist Theory:
Nativist (biological) Theory: existence of some innate capacity for language, believe in critical period for language acquisition b/w 2 years and puberty
Learning (behaviourist) Theory: operant conditioning through reinforcement of proper phoneme usage
Social Interactionist Theory: language acquisition is driven by the child's desire to communicate
112
Whorfian hypothesis or linguistic relativity hypothesis
Suggests that our perception of reality - the way we think about the world - is determined by the content of language
113
Broca's aphasia:
Wernicke's aphasia:
Conduction aphasia:
Broca's aphasia: inability to produce spoken language - telegraphed speech - aware their speech is lacking
Wernicke's aphasia: unaware their speech is lacking (agnosia), paraphasia, word salad
Conductive aphasia: severing of arcuate fasciculus - can produce and comprehend language, but cannot repeat back or read out loud
114
Instinct theory
Theory of motivation in which humans are driven to do certain behaviours based on evolutionarily programmed instincts (instinct - innate, fixed pattern of behaviour in response to stimuli. It may be consistent throughout life, or it may appear or disappear with time)
115
Arousal theory
Theory of motivation that postulates that people perform actions in order to maintain an optimum level of arousal
Viewed as a curve, in which too much or too little arousal reflects poorly on performance
116
Drive reduction theory
Theory of motivation that postulates that motivations is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states
117
Primary drives vs secondary drives
Primary drives are those that motivate us to sustain necessary biological processes. Secondary drives are those that motivate us to fulfill nonbiological (usually emotional) desires
118
Yerkes-Dodson law
Graph of arousal theory, in which optimal performance is based on arousal of not too much or too little
119
Maslow's hierarchy of needs (5)
1) Physiological: food, water, sex, etc,
2) Safety: security of body, employment, morality, family, health, property
3) Love/belonging: friendship, family, sexual intimacy
4) Esteem: self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others
5) Self-actualization: morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem-solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts
Achieved in order
120
Self-determination theory
Another needs based theory of motivation
1) autonomy: the need to be in control of one's actions and ideas
2) competence: need to complete and excel at difficult tasks
3) relatedness: need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships
121
4 primary factors that influence motivation
1) instincts: innate fixed patterns of behaviour in response to stimuli
2) arousals: physiological and psychological state of being awake
3) drives: internal states of tension that activate particular behaviours focused on goals
4) needs: either Maslow's hierarchy or self-determination theory
122
Incentive theory
Theory of motivation based on gaining rewards and avoiding punishments
123
Expectancy-value theory
Amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual's expectation of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which they value succeeding
124
Opponent-process theory
Theory of motivation that explains continuous drug use, when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology
125
Three elements of emotion:
1) physiological response
2) behavioural response (facial expression, body language)
3) cognitive response: subjective interpretation of the feeling being experienced
126
Paul Ekman's 7 basic emotions:
Happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, anger
127
James-Lange Theory of emotion
Theory of emotion that begins with physiological arousal, which leads to labelling of the emotion
Ex. getting cut off - physiological response and "I must be angry b/c my skin is hot and my blood pressure is high"
first response: nervous system arousal
second response: conscious emotion
128
Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion
States that cognitive and physiological components of emotion occur simultaneously and result in the behavioural part of emotion
first response: nervous system arousal and conscious emotion
second response: action
129
Schacter-Singer Theory of emotion
States that both arousal and labeling of arousal based on environment must occur in order for an emotion to be experienced
Importance of the surrounding environment and others emotions
first response: nervous system arousal and cognitive appraisal
second response: conscious emotion
130
Lazarus theory
Lazarus theory requires that interpretation must happen before arousal or emotion, which happen simultaneously
Since the event (story describing fear) was interpreted as being non-threatening before a physiological response (fight or flight) and emotion (fear) were to be perceived simultaneously, neither the physiological response (fight or flight) nor the emotion (fear) were elicited
131
In regard to emotion, what is the difference between explicit and implicit memories
Explicit memory is the story of the event: what happened, where it occurred, who was involved, how it made you feel
- medial temporal lobe
Implicit memory corresponds to the actual sensation and retrieval makes one feel the emotion
- amygdala
132
Cognitive appraisal
Subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress
Primary appraisal: evaluation of how stressful the environment or associated threat is
Secondary appraisal: can the organism cope with the stress, determination of its intensity
133
Distress vs. eustress
Distress: occurs when experiencing unpleasant stressors
Eustress: is a result of more positive conditions - graduating college
134
General adaptation syndrome
Sequence of physiological responses to stress
1) alarm - sympathetic nervous system, cortisol levels increase
2) resistance - continuous release of hormones allows the sympathetic NS to remain engaged to fight the stressor
3) exhaustion - body can no longer maintain an elevated response with sympathetic nervous system activity
- individual becomes more susceptible to illness and medical conditions
135
Androgyny vs undifferentiated
Terms of gender identity
Androgyny - scoring highly on both masculine and feminine scales
Undifferentiated - scoring low on both scores of masculine and feminine scales
136
Hierarchy of Salience
How our identities are organized, we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment
137
Self-discrepancy theory
Holds that we have three selves:
1) actual self: way we see ourselves as we currently are
2) ideal self: person we would like to be
3) ought self: our representation of the way others think we should be
The closer these 3 are to one another, the higher our self-esteem or self-worth will be
138
Self-efficacy
Our belief in our ability to succeed
139
Locus of control
Self evaluation that refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives
People with an internal locus of control see their successes and failures as a result of their own characteristics and actions, while those with an external locus of control perceive outside factors as having more of an influence in their lives
140
Freud Psychosexual Development Stages:
1) Oral: libidinal energy centered on the mouth; fixation can lead to excessive dependency (0-1)
2) Anal: Toilet training occurs during this time; fixation can lead to excessive orderliness or messiness (1-3)
3) Phallic: Oedipal or Electra conflict is resolved during this stage (3-5)
4) Latency: Libido is largely sublimated during this stage
5) Genital: begins at puberty; if previous stages have been successfully resolved, the person will enter into normal heterosexual relationships
141
Fixation
Occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development
142
Erikson's Psychosocial development stages (crisis):
1) Trust vs. mistrust - Can I trust the world? (0 to 1)
2) Autonomy vs. shame and doubt - Is it okay to be me? (1 to 3 years)
3) Initiative vs. guilt - Is it okay for me to do, move, and act? (3 to 6)
4) Industry vs. inferiority - can I make it in the world of people and things? (6 to 12)
5) Identity vs. role confusion - Who am I? What can I be? (12 to 20 years)
6) Intimacy vs isolation - Can I love? (20 to 40)
7) Generativity vs. stagnation - can I make my life count? (40 to 65)
8) Integrity vs. despair - is it okay to have been me? (65 to death)
143
Kohlberg Moral reasoning phases:
1) Preconventional morality - adolescence a) obedience b) self-interest
2) Conventional morality - adolescence to adulthood c) conformity d) law & order
3) Postconventional morality - adulthood (if at all) e) social contract f) universal human ethics
144
Zone of Proximal development
Refers to those skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development, can likely do in the presence of a helpful adult
145
Theory of mind
Ability to sense how another's mind works
146
Psychoanalytic theory
Views personality as resulting from unconscious urges and desires
147
Freud's view of the human psyche:
Id: basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce based on the pleasure principle
Ego: guides or inhibits the activity of the id based on the reality principle
Superego: idealist and perfectionist
148
Conscious, preconscious, unconscious (Freud)
Conscious: currently aware of
Preconscious: aren't currently aware of
Unconscious: repressed
149
Freud's defence mechanisms (8):
Repression: unconscious forgetting
Suppression: conscious forgetting
Regression: returning to an earlier stage of development
Reaction formation: an unacceptable impulse is transformed into its opposite
Projection: attribution of wishes, desires, thoughts, or emotions to someone else
Rationalization: justification of attitudes, beliefs, or behaviours
Displacement: changing the target of an emotion, while the feelings remain the same
Sublimation: channeling of an unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable direction
150
Jung's collective unconscious
Links all humans together
151
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Jungian archetypes
Persona:
Anima:
Animus:
Shadow:
```
Persona: the aspect of our personality we represent to the world
Anima: a "man's inner woman"
Animus: a "woman's inner man"
Shadow: unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness
152
Jung's self
Point of intersection between the collective unconsciousness, the personal unconsciousness, and the conscious mind
153
Fictional finalism
Alder's theory that an individual is motivated more by his expectations of the future than by past experiences
154
Humanistic perspective
Emphasizes the internal feelings of healthy individuals as they strive toward happiness and self-realization
155
Unconditional positive regard
Therapeutic technique by which the therapists accepts the client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote a positive therapeutic environment
156
Type A personality
Competitive and compulsive
157
Type B personality
Laid-back and relaxed
158
Big five (personality traits)
Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
159
Cardinal, central, and secondary traits
Cardinal traits: traits around which a person organizes his or her life (not everyone has one)
Central traits: major characteristics of personality
Secondary traits: more personal characteristics and limited in occurrence
160
N-Ach
If rated high on N-Ach - concerned with achievement and have pride in accomplishments
Avoid high risks (avoid failing) and low risks (easy tasks do not generate a sense of achievement)
Stop striving towards a goal if success is unlikely
161
Token economies
| Behaviourist perspective
Positive behaviour is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges, treats, or reinforcers
162
Reciprocal determinism
| Social cognitive
Idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviours, and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation
163
P.E.N.
Psychoticism: a measure of nonconformity or social deviance
Extraversion: a measure of tolerance for social interactions and stimulation
Neuroticism: a measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations
164
Functional autonomy
When a behaviour continues even though the drive behind the behaviour has ceased
165
Biopsychosocial approach to psychological disorders vs biomedical
Biopsychosocial approach assumes there are biological, psychological, and social components to an individuals disorder
Biomedical views it as strictly biological
166
Positive symptoms
Behaviours, thoughts, or feelings added to normal behaviour (for schizophrenia - delusions & hallucinations, disorganized thought, and catatonic behaviour)
167
Negative symptoms
Involve the absence of normal or desired behaviour, such as disturbance of affect and avolition (decrease in motivation to perform self-directed purposeful activities)
168
Positive symptoms of Schizophrenia:
Delusions of reference, delusions of persecution, delusions of grandeur, thought broadcasting, though insertion, hallucinations, disorganized thought, disorganized behaviour, catatonia
169
Delusions of reference:
Belief that common elements in the environment are directed toward the individual
170
Negative symptoms of Schizophrenia:
Disturbance of affect, blunting (severe reduction in the intensity of affect expression), flat affect, inappropriate affect (might laugh hysterically while describing someones death)
171
Prodromal phase of schizophrenia
Before diagnosis, phase is exemplified by clear evidence of deterioration, social withdrawal, role functioning impairment, peculiar behaviour, inappropriate affect, and unusual experiences
172
Anhedonia
Loss of interest in all or almost all formerly enjoyable activities
173
Dysthymia
Depressed mood that isn't severe enough to meet the criteria for a major depressive episode
174
Bipolar I disorder
Manic episodes with or without major depressive episodes
175
Bipolar II disorder
Has hypomania with at least one major depressive episode
176
Cyclothymic disorder
Combination of hypomania episodes and periods of dysthymia
177
Which neurotransmitters are theorized to play a role in mania and depression?
Too much NE and serotonin in a synapse = mania
| Too little Ne and serotonin in a synapse = depression
178
Anxiety disorders (list types)
General anxiety disorder, specific phobias, social anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, panic disorder
179
Dissociative amnesia
Inability to recall past experience (not caused by a neurological disorder)
180
Dissociative identity disorder
Formerly multiple personality disorder, two or more personalities that recurrently take control of a person's behaviour
181
Depersonalization/derealization disorder
Individuals feel detached from their own mind and body (depersonalization) or from their surroundings (derealization)
182
Somatic symptom disorder
Have at least one somatic symptom but have disproportionate concerns about its seriousness
183
Conversion disorder
Characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting voluntary motor or sensory function
184
Ego-syntonic
Describes personality disorders, a person believes that their behaviour is correct (in contrast, ego-dystonic - person sees the illness as something thrust upon them that is intrusive)
185
Cluster A personality disorders (weird)
1) paranoid personality disorder: pervasive mistrust of others and suspicions regarding their motives
2) Schizotypal PD: pattern of odd or eccentric thinking - may of ideas of reference and magical thinking (superstitiousness)
3) Schizoid PD: pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression
186
Cluster B personality disorders (wild)
1) Antisocial PD: disregard for and violation of the rights of others
2) Borderline PD: pervasive instability in interpersonal behaviour, mood, and self-image (fear of abandonment, interpersonal relationships are often intense and unstable) (splitting - view people as solely good or solely bad)
3) Histrionic PD: constant attention seeking
4) Narcissistic PD: grandiose sense of self-importance or uniqueness
187
Cluster C personality disorders (worried)
1) Avoidant PD: shyness and fear of rejection (might stay in same situation despite wanting change)
2) Dependent PD: continuous need for reassurance
3) Obsessive-compulsive PD: perfectionist and inflexible
188
Obsessions vs Compulsions
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Obsessions = persistent intrusive thoughts and impulses (increase stress)
Compulsions = repetitive tasks (decrease stress)
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189
Major depressive episodes:
Duration of at least two weeks and at least 5 of the following symptoms:
depressed mood, anhedonia (loss of interest), sleep disturbances, feelings of guilt, lack of energy, difficulty concentrating, changes in appetite, psychomotor symptoms, and suicidal thoughts
One of the symptoms must be either depressed mood or anhedonia
190
Bradykinesia, resting tremor, pill-rolling tremor, mask-like facies, cogwheel rigidity, shuffling gait are all symptoms of what
Parkinson's disease
191
Dissociative fugue
Characterized by sudden travel or change in normal day-to-day activities and occurs in some cases with dissociative amnesia
192
Social action
Actions and behaviours that individuals are conscious of and performing because others are around
193
Social facilitation
People tend to perform better on easy tasks in the presence of others, idea that performance is not solely influenced by individual ability
194
Yerkes-Dodson law of social facilitation
Being in the presence of others will significantly raise arousal, which enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at and hinders the ability to perform less familiar tasks
Expert pianist would perform better with an audience while someone with little knowledge would perform worse
195
Deindividuation
Becoming part of a group
Attempts to explain violent behaviours seen in mobs or crowds
Increases if people are masked
196
Bystander effect
Individuals are less likely to intervene and help when others are present, likelihood and timeliness of response is inversely related to the number of bystanders
197
Social loafing
The tendency of individuals to put in less effort when in a group setting than individually
198
Identity shift effect
When an individual's state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will often conform to the norms of the group
199
Cognitive dissonance
The simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions
200
Group polarization
The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group (describes behaviour at the individual level, while choice shift describes the behaviour change of a group as a whole)
201
Groupthink
Tendency for groups to make decisions based on ideas and solutions that arise within the group without considering outside ideas
Phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in which a desire for harmony and conformity results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome
202
8 factors indicative of groupthink
1) illusion of vulnerability
2) collective rationalization: ignoring warnings
3) Illusion of morality
4) excessive stereotyping
5) pressure for conformity
6) self-censorship: withholding of opposite views
7) Illusion of unanimity
8) mindguards: appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing views
203
Ethnic enclave
Locations with a high concentration of one specific ethnicity
ex. Chinatown
204
Assimilation vs multiculturalism
Assimilation - (usually uneven) merging of cultures; a melting pot
Multiculturalism - celebration of coexisting cultures; a cultural mosaic
205
Mores
Wildly observed norms
206
Folkways
Norms that refer to behaviour that is considered polite in particular contexts (shaking hands after a sports match)
207
Social stigma
The extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society
ex. mental illness has been stigmatized in American society
208
Labeling theory
Posits that labels given to people affect not only how others respond to that person, but also that person's self-image
209
Differential association theory
Posits that deviance can be learned through interactions with others
and argues that deviance provides a clear perception of social norms and acceptable boundaries, encourages unity, within society, and can even promote social change
210
Normative conformity
The desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection
211
Conformity: Internalization vs identification
Internalization is the changing of one's behaviour to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of a group
Identification refers to the acceptance of others' ideas without questioning them
212
Compliance Techniques:
foot-in-the-door technique
door-in-the-face technique
lowball technique
Foot-in-the-door technique: ask a small request followed by another one
Door-in-the-face technique: ask a large request, followed by a smaller request (often the true goal)
Lowball technique: requestor gets an initial commitment that turns out to be greater than the commitment first or previously agreed upon
213
Obedience vs compliance
Compliance deals with requests made by people without authority
Obedience deals with people with authority
People are more likely to obey than comply
214
Attitude and 3 components
Expression of positive or negative feeling towards a person, place, thing, or scenario
1) affective: emotional
2) behavioural: how one acts toward noun/scenario
3) cognitive: way individual things about something
215
Functional attitudes theory
States that attitudes serve four functions:
1) knowledge: attitudes help provide organization to thoughts and experience
2) ego-expressive: allow us to communicate and solidify our self-identity
3) adaptive: idea that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed
4) ego-defensive: protect our self-esteem or justify actions that we know are wrong
216
Learning theory
Posits that attitudes are developed through forms of learning, direct contact with the object can influence attitudes
217
Elaboration likelihood model
Posits that there are two ways in which we form attitudes
a) central route processing: scrutinizing and analyzing the content of persuasive information (high elaboration)
b) peripheral route processing: focus on superficial details of persuasive information (low elaboration)
218
Social cognitive theory
Postulates that people learn to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviours of others
219
Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation
Behavioural factors, personal factors, and environmental factors
220
Ascribed, achieved, and master status
Ascribed status: given involuntarily (race, ethnicity, gender, family background)
Achieved status: gained as a result of one's efforts or choices
Master status: status by which a person is most identified, is pervasive in person's life
221
Role conflict:
Role strain:
Role exit:
Role conflict: difficulty in satisfying the requirements or expectations of multiple roles
Role strain: difficulty in satisfying multiple requirements of the same role
Role exit: dropping of one identity for another
222
Primary group vs secondary group
Primary group: interactions are direct, with close bonds providing warm, personal, and intimate relationships to members
Secondary group: interactions are superficial, with few emotional bonds (students working on group projects)
223
Gemeinschaft (community) & Gesellschaft (society)
Gemeinschaft - groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry, or geography
Gesellschaft - groups formed because of mutual self-interests working together toward the same goal
224
Iron law of oligarchy
States that democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to being ruled by an elite group
225
McDonaldization
Refers to the shift in focus towards efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control in these societies
226
Type I error
A false positive, the incorrect rejection of a null hypothesis
227
Type II error
A false negative, the incorrect acceptance of a null hypothesis
228
In conflict theory the thesis describes the initial environment, the status quo. Therefore, the anti-thesis is:
Anti-thesis is the reaction to the thesis, the push-back from those unhappy with the status quo
229
Exchange-rational choice theory
Believes that decisions are made by rational beings who have weighed all aspects of the problem, and who the proceed to make the rational choice
230
Social construction model
Assumes that there is no biological basis for emotions
| States that emotions are solely based on the situational context of social interactions
231
Display rules
Cultural expectations of emotions (ex. certain Inuit societies rarely express anger)
232
Cultural syndrome
Shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviours among members of the same culture that are organized around a central theme, influence the rules for expressing or suppressing emotions
233
Impression management (and 3 selves)
Refers to our attempts to manage how others perceive us
a) authentic self
b) ideal self
c) tactical self: who we market ourselves to be when we adhere to others' expectations of us (similar to ought self)
234
Dramaturgical approach to impression management
Front stage self: in front of an audience, act according to ones setting, conform to the image they want others to see (live up to the roles assumed by our status)
Back stage self: free to act in ways that may be incongruent with his desired public image
235
Golden ratio
1.618:1 (we're attracted to this)
236
Reciprocal liking
People like others better when they believe the other person likes them
237
Mere exposure effect/ familiarity effect
People prefer stimuli that they have been exposed to more frequently
238
Cognitive neoassociation model
We are more likely to respond to others aggressively when whenever we are feeling negative emotions (being tired, hungry, sick, frustrated, in pain)
ex. riots are more likely to happen on hot days than cold ones
Drivers with no AC are more likely to honk and display road rage
239
Secure attachment
Seen when a child has a consistent caregiver and is able to go out and explore knowing that he or she has a secure base to return to
Will prefer a caregiver over a stranger, distress when caregiver leaves
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Avoidant attachment
Occurs when caregiver has little or no response to a distressed child
No preference to stranger or caregiver, little or no distress when caregiver leaves
241
Ambivalent attachment
Occurs when a caregiver has an inconsistent response to a child's distress, sometimes responding appropriately, sometimes neglectfully
Very distressed when caregiver leaves, but mixed response upon their return
242
Disorganized attachment
Children with this show no clear pattern of behaviour in response to a caregiver's absence or presence, instead show a mix of different behaviours (avoidance, seeming dazed, frozen, confused, rocking), may be a red flag for abuse
243
The sensation of hunger is controlled by
The hypothalamus (lateral hypothalamus promotes hunger, ventromedial hypothalamus promotes satiety)
244
Mate bias direct vs indirect benefits
How choosy members of the species are while choosing a mate
direct benefits - material advantages, protection, emotional support
indirect benefits - promoting better survival in offspring
245
5 mechanisms of mate choice
1) Phenotypic benefits: observable traits that make a mate more attractive to the opposite sex (ex. males that appear more nurturing)
2) Sensory bias: development of a trait to match a preexisting preference that exists in the population (fiddler crabs building pillars to attract females)
3) Fisherian/ runaway selection: a positive feedback mechanism in which a particular trait that has no effect on survival becomes more and more exaggerated over time (ex. plumage of the peacock)
4) Indicator traits: trait that signifies overall good health and well-being of an organism (females cats are more attracted to male cats with clean and shiny coats)
5) Genetic compatibility: creation of mate pairs, that, when combined have complementary genetics (mechanism for reduced frequency of recessive genetic disorders in the population)
246
Empathy
Ability to vicariously experience the emotion of another
247
Game theory
Attempts to explain decision-making behaviour, players define the game
248
Evolutionary stable strategy
When an EES is adopted by a given population in a specific environment, natural selection will prevent alternative strategies from arising
249
Inclusive fitness
A measure of an organisms success in a population, based on number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and the ability of offspring to then support others
250
Social perception cognition and 3 components:
How we form impressions about the characteristics of individuals and groups of people
a) perceiver: influenced by experience, motives, and emotional state
b) target: person about which the perception is made
c) situation: the context
251
Primacy effect
First impressions are often more important than subsequent impressions
252
Recency effect
Sometimes recent information is most important in forming our impressions
253
Reliance on central traits
Tendency for people to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target that are most relevant to the perceiver
254
Implicit personality theory
States that there are sets of assumptions people make about how different types of people, their traits, and their behaviours are related
255
Halo effect
When judgements of an individual's character can be affected by the overall impression of the individual, an individual's attractiveness can be seen to produce the halo effect
256
Just-world hypothesis
In a "just-world" good things happen to good people, noble are rewarded, evil are punished, can cause victim blaming
257
Self-serving bias
Individuals will view their own success based on internal factors and their failures on external factors
258
Attribution theory
| Dispositional vs situational
Focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behaviour
Dispositional (internal): causes that relate to features of the person whose behaviour is being considered
Situational (external): causes are related to features of the surroundings or social context
259
Consistency, consensus, and distinctiveness cues
Consistency cues: consistent behaviour over time
Consensus cues: matches others' behaviour
Distinctiveness cues: uses similar behaviour in similar situations
260
Correspondent interference theory
Used to describe attributions made by observing the intentional (especially unexpected) behaviours performed by another person
261
Fundamental attribution error
Posits that we are generally biased in making dispositional attributions rather than situational, especially in negative contexts
262
Attribution substitution
Occurs when one must make judgments that are complex, but instead they substitute a simpler solution or apply a heuristic
ex. A pencil and an eraser cost $1.10 together. If the pencil costs one dollar more than the eraser, how much does the eraser cost? most people answer 10 cents (incorrect)
263
Stereotypes vs prejudice vs discrimination
Stereotypes: occur when attitudes or impressions are made based on limited and superficial information about a person or group (cognitive)
Prejudice: defined as an irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing prior to an actual experience (affective)
Discrimination: when prejudice attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently from others (behavioural)
264
Stereotype content model
Attempts to classify stereotypes based on two binary criteria, warmth and competence
4 categories:
Paternalistic - low status, not competitive (elderly, housewives, disabled)
Admiration stereotype - high status, not competitive (in-group, close allies)
Contemptuous stereotype - low status, competitive (welfare recipients, poor people)
Envious stereotype - high status, competitive (Asians, Jews, feminists)
265
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Making what one expects to happen, happen
266
Stereotype threat
Concept of people being concerned or anxious about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group, may hinder performance and create a self-fulfilling prophecy
267
Propaganda attempts to to create _____ in others
Prejudice
268
Ethnocentrism
Practice of making judgments about other cultures based on values and beliefs of one's own culture, especially when it comes to language, customs, and religions
in-group vs out-group (based on favouritism for in-group)
269
Cultural relativism
Perception of another culture as different from one's own, but with the recognition that the central values, mores, and rules of a culture fit into that culture itself
270
Functionalism
Study of the structure and function of each part of society and how they fit together
271
Functions vs dysfunctions
Functions refer to the beneficial consequences of people's actions
Dysfunctions are harmful consequences of people's actions
272
Manifest vs latent functions
Manifest functions: deliberate actions that serve to help a given system
Latent functions: unexpected, unintended, or unrecognized positive consequences of manifest functions
273
Conflict theory
Based on work of Karl Marx, focuses on how power differentials are created how they contribute to the maintenance of social order
274
Symbolic interactionism
Study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols, view symbols as the key to understanding how we view the world and communicate with one another
275
Social constructionism
Focuses on how individuals and groups put together/make decisions to agree upon their social reality
ex. how money (which in and of itself has no value) is defined as a society, so that it can be used to trade for goods and services
276
Kinsey scale
0 to 6 scale of sexuality
0 being solely heterosexual
6 being exclusively homosexual
277
Fertility rate vs birth rate
Fertility rate: children per woman per lifetime
| Birth rate: children per 1000 people per year
278
Mortality rate
Deaths per 1000 per year
279
Migration rate
Immigration rate minus emigration rate
280
Demographic transition
Specific example of demographic shift (changes in population make up over time) referring to changes in birth and death rates in a country as it develops from a preindustrial to industrial economic system, mortality rates drop first, then birth rates
281
Proactive vs reactive social movements
Proactive: promote social change
Reactive: resist social change
282
Globalization
Process of integrating the global economy with free trade and the tapping of foreign markets
283
Socioeconomic status (SES) is dependent on
```
Both ascribed (race, ethnicity, gender) and achieved status
ex. caste and estate systems stratify by ascribed SES, while class systems stratify by achieved SES
```
284
Anomie
Refers to a lack of social norms, or a the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and society
- anomic conditions in postindustrial modern life have accelerated the decline of social inclusion and, as a result, obstructed opportunities to acquire social capital
285
Strain theory
Focuses on how anomic conditions can lead to deviance
| Examples of anomic conditions: excessive individualism, social inequality, isolation
286
Social capital
Considered the investments people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards; the greater the investment, the higher the level of social integration and inclusion
287
Five ethnicities model
White, Black, Asian, Latino, Native American
| Some argue an oversimplification of racial categories the enforces socioeconomic inequalities
288
Social mobility
| Intragenerational vs. Intergenerational
```
Ability to move up or done from one class to another
Intragenerational: changes within social status happen within a person's lifetime
Intergenerational: changes are from parents to children
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289
Meritocracy vs Plutocracy
Meritocracy: based on intellectual talent and achievement, and is a means for a person to advance up a social ladder
Plutocracy: rule by the upper class (some argue that motivation, strong work ethic, drive, and mastery of skills no longer offers opportunities for advancement in the US, therefore it is not a meritocracy, but a plutocracy)
290
Social reproduction
Social inequality, especially poverty, that is passed down rom one generation to the next
291
Absolute vs relative poverty
Absolute: socioeconomic condition in which people do not have enough money or resources to maintain a quality of living that includes basic necessities
Relative: in which one is poor in comparison to the larger population
292
Social exclusion
A sense of powerlessness when individuals feel alienated from society
293
Spatial inequality
Focuses on social stratification across territories and their populations
294
Incidence, prevalence, morbidity
Incidence: (new cases / population at risk / time) a rate - number of new cases of an illness per population at risk
Prevalence: (total cases / total population/ time)measure of the number of cases of an illness overall per population in a given amount of time
Morbidity: degree of severity of illness associated with a given disease
295
Second sickness
Exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice
