Behavioral Science Flashcards
Brodmann’s area 3,1,2
primary somatosensory cortex (post-central gyrus, parietal cortex)—projects to primary motor (BA4)
Brodmann’s area 4
primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus, parietal cortex)
Substantia nigra
produce and releases dopamine
Compacta - contains dense dopamine neurons
Reticulata - contains some dopamine neurons and GABA receptors
Limbic system
Emotional and memory processing. Amygdala, hippocampus, fornix, and mammillary bodies
Amygdala
Emotion and memory (stores implicit memory). Defensive and aggressive behavior like rage and fear
Hippocampus
Consolidate info into long term memory (stores explicit memory). Communicates with the limbic system through the fornix
Anterograde amnesia
not being able to establish long term memory
Retrograde amnesia
memory loss before a brain injury
Fornix
major output tract of the hippocampus
Lateral hypothalamus
triggers eating and drinking
Ventromedial hypothalamus
signals to stop eating. Lesions here can lead to obesity
Anterior hypothalamus
control of sexual behavior
Hypothalamus
hunger and thirst, emotion, homeostasis, and mate seeking behavior
Posterior pituitary
secretes ADH and oxytocin
Superior colliculi
receives visual sensory input
Inferior colliculi
receives sensory info from the auditory system
Pons
contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and medulla
Medulla oblongata
vital functioning (breathing, heart rate, digestion)
Reticullar formation
Arousal and controlling alertness. Can be stimulated to wake someone from a coma. Located in hindbrain
Brain stem
medulla, pons, cerebellum
Computed tomography (CT)
X-rays taken at different angles and processed to see the cross sections of the tissue
Electroencephelogram (EEG)
placing electrodes to study the larger groups of neurons that generate electrical activity
Positron emission tomography (PET)
A radioactive sugar is injected into the body, and its dispersion to target tissue is imaged. Used to identify metabolic processes in the body
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
use of a magnetic field to interact with H and detect H dense regions of the body
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Measures changes in blood flow using same technique as MRI. Useful for monitoring neural activity
Corpus callosum
connects the two hemispheres of the brain and allows them to communicate
Basal ganglia
centers for motor coordination. Caudate + putamen
Lobes of the brain
Frontal lobe: executive function, cognitive control, movement
Parietal lobe: sensory information processing (temperature, taste, touch) and movement
Occipital lobe: vision
Temporal lobe: memory, auditory
Dominant hemisphere
Left side of the brain in most individuals. Associated with language, logic, and math skills
Non-dominant hemosphere
Associated with intuition, creativity, spatial processing (sense of direction), facial recognition, and music cognition
Acetylcholine
In the PNS it is responsible for voluntary muscle control and transmission of nerve impulses.
In the CNS it is responsible for attention and arousal
Norepinephrine
Controls alertness and weakness. Low levels are associated with depression. High levels with anxiety and mania
Epinephrine
Promotes fight or flight
Serotonin
Plays roles in regulating mood, appetite, sleeping, and dreaming
Endorphins
neuropeptides that are natural painkillers in the brain. Act relatively slow
Adaptive value
the extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness
Rotting reflex
stimulus that touches the cheek —> turning of the head in the direction of stimulus
Moro reflex
abrupt movements of the head —> flinging of the arms in the air, then slowly retracting them and crying after
Babinski reflex
sole of the foot is stimulated —> extension of big toe and other toes spread apart
Grasping reflex
object is placed in the hand —> closing of the fingers
Aα and Aβ fibers
fibers that touch sensation travels through
Cuneate nucleus
carries fine touch and proprioceptive information from the upper body to the thalamus
Absolute threshhold
minimum stimulus energy required to activate a sensory system
Subliminal perception
Perception of stimulus below a given threshold. This means that a stimulus below threshold of perception will reach the CNS, but is not processed by regions that control attention and consciousness
Weber’s law
Just noticeable difference (JND) = change / original
*the original # can be the first frequency
Signal detection theory
Perception of stimuli can be affected by non-sensory factors like experiences (memory), motive, and expectations. Ex/ how loud does your name have to be called in a crowd for you to hear it?
Adaption
when our detection of a stimulus changes over time. Ex/ pupils dilating in the dark to make it possible to pick out the light. Ex/ not noticing the feeling of our clothes until we have a reason to think about it
Cones (eye)
for color and sensing fine details (acuity)
Rods (eye)
Sensation of light and dark. They contain the pigment rhodopsin. Their are more rods than cones
Fovea
Center part of neural retina that only contains cones. Visual acuity is best here
Path of light into eye
Light —> cornea —> aqueous humor —> pupil—> lens —> vitreous humor —> retina (rods/cones) -> optic nerve -> thalamus -> visual cortex
Parallel processing
ability to simultaneously analyze and combine info about color, shape, and motion. Then this info is compared to our memories
Parvocellular cells
Cells that detect shape
Magnocellular cells
Cells that detect motion
Pinna (auricle)
cartilaginous outer ear that channels sound waves into the external auditory canal
Eustachian tube
connects the middle ear to the nasal cavity. This helps equalize pressure between the outside and middle ear
Bony labyrinth
Contains the cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals. They are continuous with each other and contain the K+ rich fluid endolymph within the membranous labyrinth
Cochlea
Spiral shaped ducts that contain the round window (out), oval window (in), organ of Corti, and tectorial membrane
Vestibule
Contains the utricle and saccule. They are important for balance and orientation in 3D space
Semicircular canals
Important for perceiving rotational acceleration. They contain ampulla that contain hair cells which will bend due to rotation of the head
Proprioception
the ability to tell where your body is in space
Bottom up processing
object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection
Top down processing
object recognition driven by memories and expectations that allow the brain to recognize the whole object first and then its components
Constancy
idea that we perceive certain characteristics of objects to remain the same despite differences in environment
Gestalt principles
The ways the brain infers missing parts of a picture when it is incomplete
Law of proximity
elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit
Law of similarity
objects that are similar tend to be grouped together
Law of good continuation
elements that appear to follow the same pathway tend to be grouped together
Subjunctive contours
perception of a shape within other shapes without being explicitly seen
Law of closure
if a shape is not fully closed, it can still be fully seen
Law of prägnanz (symmetry)
perceptual organization will always be regular, simple, and as symmetric as possible
Classical conditioning
a type of associative learning that creates associating between two unrelated stimuli
Unconditioned stimuli
stimuli (ex/ food) that produces a reflexive response or a unconditioned response (Ex/ salivation)
Conditioned stimulus
a neutral stimulus (ex/ bell) that through association causes a reflexive response or a conditioned response (ex/ salivation)
Extinction
A decrease in response resulting from repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the presence of the unconditioned stimulus
Spontaneous recovery
A weak conditioned response after extinction
Generalization
a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus produces the conditioned response
Discrimination
the subject learns to distinguish between the similar stimuli
Forward classical conditioning
Occurs when the conditioned stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus. The subject learns to anticipate the unconditioned stimulus as a result of the conditioned stimulus
Operant cnditioning
links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviors
Reinforcement
Increasing the likelihood that a subject will perform a behavior. Can be positive (incentive) or negative (removal of something unpleasant)
Escape learning (reinforcement)
using a negative reinforcer for immediate incentive. Ex/ shocking a dog when it runs away on a leash and causing him to come back. The dog learns to escape the shock by returning to the owner
Avoidance learning (reinforcement)
preventing unpleasantness before it happens. Ex/ a dog learns that beeping indicates getting closer to a shock fence so he stops approaching it
Punishment
Reducing the occurrence of a behavior. Can be positive (adding a consequence) or negative (removing an incentive)
Shaping
process of reward for behaviors that lead up to the desired behavior and eventually just the desired complex behavior
Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule
reinforcement of a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior
Variable ratio reinforcement schedule
reinforcement of a behavior after a varying number of performances of that behavior, but the average number of performances to receive the reward is relatively constant
Fixed interval reinforcement schedule
reinforcement of a behavior the first instance of a behavior after a specific time period has passed
Variable interval reinforcement schedule
reinforcement of a behavior the first time the behavior is performed after the varying interval of time
Latent learning
When learning occurs without a reward, but its spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced
Prepardness
When animals are predisposed to learn behaviors based on their own natural abilities and instincts
Ex/ rewarding a bird for pecking based behavior when the goal is the be able to peck for their own food
Instinctive drift
The tendency of animals to resist learning a behavior due to conflict with their instinctive animal behaviors.
Ex/ a raccoon not being able to pick up a coin and put it in a piggy bank because it cant help think about picking up a seed, putting it in a stream to wash, and taking it back out
Self reference effect
Putting semantic encoding (adding meaning to memory) in context of our own lives. Relating new info to one’s own experience
Controlled processing
Active memorization (putting new info into memory). Requires undivided attention (effortful)
Maintenence rehersal
Repetition to keep something in working memory or store it in long term memory
Chunking (clustering)
taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them together into groups with similar meanings
Sensory memory
consist of iconic memory (visual) and echoic memory (auditory) memory. It last for a very short time and fades quickly
Elaborative rehersal
Association of information to the knowledge already stored in the long term. This is a way to consolidate info into the long term.
Implicit memory
Memories that do not require conscious recall. Skills and conditioned responses. Also called procedural memory (long term memory of motor skills)
Explicit memory
Memories that require conscious recall. Also called declarative memory
Semantic memory
The facts we know (part of explicit memory)
Episodic memory
Our experiences (part of explicit memory)
Flashbulb memory
memories of learning something so shocking or surprising that it creates a strong and seemingly accurate memory about learning about the event, but not the event itself
Semantic network
the way our brain organizes information. Everything is interconnected
Spreading activation
when one node of the semantic network is activated, the other linked concepts are unconsciously activated. Ex/ if a person can not recall an event and someone gives them some details of the event, that person can potentially start to remember the event
Priming
recall is aided by first being presented a word or phase thats close to the desired memory
State dependent effect
when your mental state effects recall
Eidetic memory
Also known as photographic memory. It is the ability to perfectly remember things heard, read, or seen even if only for a brief moment
Retrograde memory
ability to recall memory before trauma
Anterograde memory
ability to form memories after trauma
Korsakoff’s syndrome
Form of memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain. A key symptom is confabulation which is the process of creating vivid but fabricated memories
Agnosia
The loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds (1 of the 3). Caused by physical damage to the brain
Interferance
Retrieval error caused by the existence of other similar info. A common reason for memory loss
Proactive interference
Old info is interfering with new info
Retroactive interference
New info is interfering with old info
Prospective memory
Remembering to perform a task at some point in the future. Usually event based like remembering to buy milk after passing the grocery store
Misinformation effect
False interpretations are made based on the info given. False info leads to false interpretation while more descriptive info can lead to overstating
Source monitoring effect (source amnesia)
Confusion between semantic and episodic memory. A person remembers the details of an event, but confuses the context the details were gained. Can occur when someone hears a story about someone else, but later recalls the story as happening to himself
Synaptic pruning
as we get older weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered, increasing efficiency
Informational processing model
Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli
Schemata
organized patterns of behavior and thought. It can include a concept, behavior, or sequence of events
Assimilation
classifying new info into existing schemata
Accommodation
existing schemata are modified to encompass new info
Object permanence
The understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view. Part of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage Ex/ peek a boo
Symbolic thinking
ability to pretend and have an imagination
Egocentricism
inability to imagine what another person may think or feel
Centration
focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon and inability to understand conservation (same amount of water in a bowl vs cup)
Fluid intelligence
consist of problem solving skills. Using connections and relationships to resolve problems
Crystal intelligence
capacity to understand relationships or solve problems using info acquired during school and other experiences
Functional fixedness
the inability to consider how to use an object in a non-traditional manner
Deductive reasoning
starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the info given
Inductive reasoning
seeks to create theories from generalizations
Heuristics
simplified principles used to make decisions (rules of thumb, mental shortcuts). While they can be ineffective at times, they are essential for quick decision making
Availability heurstic
a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person’s mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision. Ex/ Do more words start with “K” or have “K” as the third letter
Representative heuristic
categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the representative image of that category
Base rate fallacy
using stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical info
Disconfirmation principle
when a potential solution to a problem fails, the solution should be discarded
Confirmation bias
Tendency to focus on info that fits an individual’s beliefs
Belief perseverance
The inability to reject a particular belief despite the clear evidence. Also known as preservation
Intuition
The ability to act of perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence. Developed by experience
Recognition primed decision model
This model describes intuition and how your brain sorts through a variety of information to match a pattern without much awareness. Ex/ After seeing thousands of patients with chest pain, an ER doc is able to determine which are having a heart attack without looking at an EKG
States of conciousness
alertness, sleep, dreaming, and altered states of conscleepiousness like hypnosis, meditation, and drug induced
Delta waves
low frequency waves. Indicative of sleep
Theta waves
awake state, but not active. Ex/ drowsiness
Alpha waves
Relaxed, non-active state for sensory regions. Resting sensory region. Ex/ closing your eyes will start to form alpha waves
Beta waves
Low amplitude, high frequency. Active
Narcolepsy
Lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep
Cataplexy
Symptom of narcolepsy where there is a loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours (usually caused by an emotional trigger)
Sleep paralysis
Symptom of narcolepsy where there is a sensation of being unable to move despite being awake
Barbituates
Anxiety reducing and sleep medications that increase GABA
Amphetamines
increased dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin release. Causes decreased appetite and need for sleep; increased HR and BP
Opioids (opiates)
naturally and synthetically made respectively. Cause a decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria
Selective attention
focusing on one part of the sensorium (sensory environment) while ignoring other stimuli.
Cocktail party phenomenon
Focusing on one thing while other stimuli are processed in the background [if they are perceived important]
Categorical perception
the ability to notice subtle differences how speech sounds represent a change in meaning. Its an auditory example of constancy
Morphology
the structure of words. Morphemes are the building blocks of words that have a particular meaning. Ex/ re-, un-, -ed
Semantics
the association of meaning with a word
Pragmatics
the dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge
Prosody
the rhythm, cadence, and inflection in our voice
Nativist theory
Nativism states that everyone (universally) is able to process and absorb language due to language acquisition devices
Sensitive period
when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability. Occurs before the onset of puberty
Whorf hypothesis
also called the linguistic relativity hypothesis. States that our perception of reality is determined by the content, form, and structure of language
Arcuate fasiculus
neurons that connect Broca’s and Wernicke’s area. Association between language comprehension and speech production
Aphasia
deficit of language production or comprehension
Instinct theory of motivation
states that people are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionary programmed instincts
Arousal theory
states that people perform actions in order to maintain max arousal
Primary drives
needs to basic things like food, water, and anything relating to homeostasis
Drive reduction theory
Motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
certain needs yield a greater influence on our motivation
1) Physiological 2) Safety 3) Love/Belonging 4) Esteem 5) self-actualization (realizing full potential)
Self determination theory
Emphasizes 3 universal needs: Autonomy, competence, relatedness
Incentive theory
Behavior is not motivated by need or arousal, but by pursuing reward and avoiding punishment
Expectancy–value theory
The motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individuals expectation of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which he values succeeding at the goal
Opponent–process theory
when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will try to counteract the (negative) effects physiologically. This explains tolerance
Token economy
Rewarding individuals with secondary enforcers that can be exchanged for appetitive stimuli
James–Lange theory
Stimulus —> physiological response —> emotion
Cannon–Bard theory
Stimulus —> physiological response + emotion
Schachter—Singer theory
Stimulus —> physiological response —> cognitive labeling of the response (context/environment) —> emotion
Ex/ identical stimuli invoke different emotional responses in rats
Cognitive appraisal
the subjunctive evaluation of a situation that induces stress
Distress
Occurs when experiencing negative stressors
Eustress
Occurs when experiencing positive stressors
Avoidance–approach conflict
conflict deals with one choice (decision), but it can have negative or positive effects.
Ex/ rushing back from injury
Avoidance–avoidance conflict
conflict deals with 2 negative choices
Approach–approach conflict
conflict deals with choosing between 2 desirable choices
Double approach–avoidance conflict
decision with multiple choices or goals, with attracting or repelling aspects
Self concept (self identity)
The sum of the ways in which we describe/perceive ourselves: in the present and future
Self schema
a self-label that contains a set of qualities
Hierarchy of salience
A situation dictates which identity holds the most importance for us at a given time. Ex/ the identity a person wants to express through fashion is dependent on social context
Self discreapency theory
States that we each have 3 selves: actual self, ideal self, and ought self
Self esteem
self worth
Ought (tactical) self
our representation of the way others think we should be, associated with self esteem
Self efficacy
our belief in our ability to succeed
Learned helplessness
when you have very low self efficacy and give up on trying to change the negative influences towards you. Ex/ a person who will not leave an abusive relationship
Locus of control
the way we characterize the influences in our lives
Internal locus of control
you view yourself as controlling your own fate
External locus of control
the events in your life are caused by luck or outside influences
Fixation
when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development (Freud)
Social contract
Moral rules are conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good (Kohlberg, postconventional morality)
Ex/ Everyone has the right to live. Businesses have the right to profit from their products
Zone of proximal development
skills and abilities that are not fully developed but are in the process of. For this to happen, there needs to be someone guiding the child like an adult (Vygotsky)
Role taking
when a child begins to understand the perspective and role of others. A child is more likely to engage in behavior modeled by individuals that are like them Ex/ female child will imitate a female
Theory of mind
Txhe ability to sense how another’s mind works
Psychoanalytic perspective
Unconscious internal states influence actions and determine personality (Freud, Jung)
Id
Primal urge to survive and reproduce. It is based on the pleasure principle
Ego
The need to reduce tension on a permanent basis. It is based on the reality principle
Superego
our personality’s perfectionist where we have pride in our accomplishments and guilt in our failures
Defense mechanims
are the ego’s way of relieving anxiety caused by clashing of the id and superego
Repression
Unconsciously removing an idea or feeling
Suppression
Consciously removing an idea or feeling
Regression
Returning to an earlier stage of development.
Ex/ a husband telling his wife bad news in “baby talk”
Reaction formation
When urges are suppressed by transforming them into the exact opposite
Ex/ 2 people fight all the time because they like each other
Projection
Individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others. The inkblot test makes use of projection to gain insight into a person’s mind.
Ex/ a kid who says “i hate my parents” might start saying “my parents hate me”
Rationalization
Justification of behavior in a manner that is acceptable to self and society
Displacement
Changing the target of emotion from one person or object to another
Ex/ holding your tongue at work with your boss but coming home and snapping at your wife
Sublimation
Channeling an unacceptable impulse in a socially acceptable direction
Archetypes
Images of the collective unconscious. They are shared among all humans and is a result of the experiences of our ancestors. Ex/ common image of a mother and father
Humanistic perspective
Emphasis on the internal feelings (emotions) of healthy individuals as they strive toward happiness and self-realization (self-actualization, self-awareness, free will)
Type A personality
personality characterized by competitive and compulsive behavior
Type B personality
laid-back and relaxed behavior
Neuroticism
The degree to which an individual is prone to emotional arousal in stressful situations
Extraversion
The degree to which an individual has tolerance for social interaction and stimulation
Psychoticism
measure of nonconformity or social deviance
Cardinal traits
traits that a person organizes their life around
Secondary traits
aspects of one’s personality that only appear in close groups or specific social situations
Functional autonomy
This is where a behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior. Ex/ a hunter hunting for food, but then continuing to hunt because he enjoys it
Behaviorist perspective
Personality is a reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced over time (based on classical conditioning)
Token economies
(+) behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges or other reinforces
Social cognitive perspective
The behaviorist perspective plus focusing on how we interact with the environment. Based on the expectations of others
Reciprocal determinism
the idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment all interact with each to other to determine our actions in a given situation
Biological perspective
Personality can be explained as a result of the genetic expression in the brain. Also known as trait theory
Indirect therapy
social support
Direct therapy
medication
Schizophrenia
A person suffering from at least one of these symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, disorganized behavior, catatonia, negative symptoms. And at least 2 positive symptoms for 6 months.
Delusions
false beliefs discordant with reality and not shared by others in spite of strong evidence to the contrary
Neuroleptics
block dopamine receptors and are used to treat the excess dopamine (schizophrenia, etc..)
Delusions of reference
belief that elements in the environment are being directed towards the individual. Ex/ TV characters are talking to the individual
Delusion of persecution
belief that the person is being deliberately interfered with
Delusion of grandur
belief that the person is remarkable in some significant way. Ex/ an inventor or historical figure
Thought broadcasting
the belief that a person’s thoughts are being heard by the external world
Thought insertion
thinking thoughts are being place in your head
Hallucinations
the most common form is auditory but there can be visual or tactile (drug use or withdrawal), and olfactory or gustatory (common before a seizure)
Disorganized thought
when speech seems to shift from idea to idea or have no structure (loosening of associations). Sometimes called a word salad
Echolatia
repeating another’s words
Echopraxia
imitating another’s actions
Catatonia
Motor behavior characteristic where the patient maintains a rigid posture, refusing to be moved
Blunting
severe reduction in the intensity of effect expression
Flat effect
no signs of emotional expression
Inappropriate affect
The affect (action) is discordant with the content of the person. Negative symptom. Ex/ laughing while describing a parent’s death
Avolition
decreased engagement in purposeful, goal-directed actions
Ego-dystonic
disorders where the person sees the illness as something thrust upon them that is intrusive
Ego-systonic
disorders where people see their behavior as normal, correct, and in harmony with their goals
Dysthemia
a depressive mood not severe enough to be classified as a depressive disorder
Major depressive episode symptoms
SIG E CAPS - Sleep, Interest, Guilt, Energy, Concentration, Appetite, Psychomotor, Suicide
Manic episode
last 1 week with the 3 of the following: increased distractibility, decreased need for sleep, inflated self esteem, racing thoughts, increased agitation, increased talkativeness, and involvement in high risk behavior
Bipolar disorder I
manic episodes with/without major depressive episodes
Bipolar disorder II
hypomania with at least 1 major depressive episode
Hypomania
the person is more energetic and optimistic. This does not impair functioning
Catecholamine theory of depression
increased levels of norepinephrine and serotonin in the synapse leads to mania. Conversely, decreased levels of these (and dopamine) lead to depression
Social anxiety disorder
anxiety that is due to social situations
Agoraphobia
fear of being in places or situations where it might be hard for an individual to escape
Body dysmorphic disorder
a person has an unrealistic evaluation of their personal appearance
PTSD
Anxiety disorder. Must have intrusion, avoidance, negative cognitive, or arousal symptoms for at least a month. Less than a month downgrades to acute stress disorder
Intrustion symptoms
recurrent reliving of an event, flashbacks, nightmares
Avoidance symptoms
deliberate attempts to avoid memories, people, places, things, or activities
Negative cognitive symptoms
an inability to recall key features of the event, negative mood, feeling distanced from others, and a persistent negative view of the world
Arousal symptoms
increased startle response, irritability, sleep disturbances, and self-destructive behavior
Dissociative disorders
occur when a person avoids stress by escaping (detaching) from their identity. The person still has their sense of reality intact. Patients also have memory dysfunction
Somatic symptom
a bodily symptom that causes stress/impairment
Somatic symptom disorder
this is where a person has at least 1 somatic symptom that is accompanied by disproportionate concerns about its seriousness, devotion of time to focus on it, or elevated levels of anxiety about it
Illness anxiety disorder
when a person is consumed with thoughts about having or developing a serious medical condition
Conversion disorder
Characterized by unexplained symptoms affecting motor or censoring functions after a person experiences high levels of stress or a traumatic event. Ex/ a person going blind after watching their son die tragically
Personality disorder
a pattern of behavior that will not change and causes impairment in cognition, emotions, interpersonal interaction, or impulse control (2 of those). All personality disorders are ego-systonic
3 Personality clusters
Cluster A (Weird)- paranoid, schizotypal, schizoid Cluster B (Wild) - antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic Cluster C (Worried) - avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive
Schizotypal personality
Pattern of odd or eccentric thinking. These individuals can have magical thinking (superstition or clairvoyance)
Schizoid personality
Pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression
Borderline personality disorder
pattern of instability in interpersonal behavior, mood, and self image
Histrionic personality
Constant attention seeking behavior
Obsessive compulsive personality
the person is inflexible (likes rules), lacks a desire to change, has excessive stubbornness, lacks a sense of humor, and maintains a careful routine. OCD differs from this because it is ego-dystonic
Biology of depressive disorders
Abnormally high glucose metabolism in the amygdala, abnormally high levels of glucocorticoids, and decreased NE, serotonin, and dopamine (the monoamine theory of depression says increased of these lead to mania so decreased leads to depression)
Biology of bipolar disorders
Increased NE and serotonin
Social facilitation
The tendency of people to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others
Simple vs. complex tasks
Tasks someone is already good at vs. tasks that someone is less familiar with
Yerkes-Dodson law of social facilitation
being in the presence of others will raise arousal which increases the ability to perform simple tasks and decreases performance on complex tasks
Deindividuation
Individual behavior is different in social environments. The presence of large groups causes a loss of individual identity
Social loafing
the tendency of individuals to put in less effort (work) when in a group setting than individually due to seeing their contribution as insignificant or due to reliance on others
Identity shift effect
When a persons state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection (peer pressure), the person will conform to the norms of the group. This causes internal conflict. To eliminate the conflict, the person will have an identity shift
Cognitive dissonance
the simultaneous presence of 2 opposing thoughts that leads to an internal state of discomfort
Social interaction
the way 2 or more individuals can shape each others behavior
Social action
the effects that a group has on individual behavior
Group polarization
the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas of each member
Groupthink
occurs when the desire for harmony within the group results in decisions that may not be the best option
Subculture
groups of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture. These are based on race, ethnicity, sexuality, etc.
Socialization
The processes of developing and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs. It is a lifelong practice where norms and values are learned
Secondary socialization
occurs within smaller sections of society outside of home
Primary socialization
occurs mainly in childhood when learning of social norms occurs with parents and close relatives
Resocialization
the process of discarding old behavior when making a life change. Ex/ joining the nature of the armed services
Mores
widely observed social norms
Taboo
socially unacceptable
Folkways
norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in social interactions. Ex/ shaking hands
Labeling theory
labels given to people affect not only how others respond to that person, but also that persons self-image
Differential association theory
describes the degree to which deviance can be learned through interactions with others and influence the rejection of normative behavior
Normative conformity
a desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection
Internalization
changing ones behavior to fit into a group while privately agreeing to the ideas of the group
Foot in the door technique
a small request is made and after compliance is gained, a larger request is made
Door in the face technique
a large request is made and after it is refused, a second smaller request is made. Usually the smaller request is the goal
Lowball technique
when someone gets an initial commitment by an individual, but then the cost of the commitment is raised. Ex/ agreeing to run a meeting but there is paperwork to be done also
That’s not all technique
A request/offer is made, but before a decision is given, you are told that the offer is even better than expected. Ex/ sales commercials
Social cognition
the way in which people think about others and how these idea impact behavior
3 components of attitude
Affective, behavioral, cognitive
Elaboration liklihood method
individuals process persuasive information differently
Central processing route
people think deeply about information, scrutinize it, and draw conclusions/make decisions based on it
Peripheral processing route
people focus on superficial details and focus on the appearance of the individual giving the information, catchphrases, and credibility
Social cognitive theory
people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others. Three factors of this are behavior, personal factors, and environment. All interact with each other (Bandura’s triangle)
Ascribed status
One that is given involuntarily due to factors like race, ethnicity, gender
Achieved status
One that is gained as a result of individual and direct effort
Master status
Status by which a person is most identified
Role
A set of beliefs, attitudes, and norms to define those who hold status
Role conflict
difficulty satisfying requirements of multiple roles
Role strain
difficulty satisfying multiple requirements of 1 role
Reference group
a group that an individual uses for a standard of evaluating themselves and their behavior
Social group
general term for a collection of people with common identity and regular interaction
* Be careful. This differs from a reference group. Reference groups are more similar
Group conformity
individuals are compliant with the groups goals even if they contrast the individuals goals. This is related to groupthink
Gemeinschaft
community. Groups unified by feelings of togetherness due to shared beliefs
Ex/ families and neighborhoods
Gesellschaft
society. Groups formed because of mutual self-interests working together toward the same goal
Ex/ companies and countries
Network redundency
networks are observable patterns of social relationships and when there are overlaps in connections with the same individual it is network redundancy
Basic model of emotional expression
states that expression involves facial expressions, behaviors, postures, vocal changes, and physiological changes (Darwin)
Appraisal model
There are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced, but there is a cognitive antecedent (event that existed before) to the emotional expression
Social construction model
Emotions are based on experiences and social encounters alone (not biologically). Certain emotions can only exist within certain social encounters
Display rules
cultural expectations of emotions. They govern which emotions can be expressed and to what degree. Ex/ Inuit culture does not display anger
Cultural syndrome
shared set of beliefs/norms among members of the same culture that influence the rules for expressing emotions. Ex/ happy in the US is more individual and happy in Japan is sharing happiness with others
Impression management
Our attempt to influence how others perceive us
Front stage
the way you act in front of people. In regard to a setting, role, or “script” the person wants others to see
Back stage
the way you act when other people do not see you. Free to act in a way that is not congruent with the public image
Recipricol liking
people like others better when they believe that the other person likes them
Cognitive neoassociation model
we are more likely to respond to others aggressively when we are feeling negative emotions (tired, sick, hungry, pain)
Secure attachement
When a child has a consistent caregiver and a secure base to return to. Children cry when their parents leave but are excited when they return
Avoidant attachment
When the caregiver has little to no response to a distressed child. The child shows no expression and minimal distress to a caregiver or stranger
Ambivalent attachement
When a caregiver has inconsistent responses to a child’s distress like responding appropriately or neglectfully. The child is very has mixed feelings about the caregiver
Disorganized attachment
When a child shows no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregivers absence or presence. Associated with erratic behavior (ex/ rocking back and forth, frozen looks, looking confused) and social withdrawal. Red flag for abuse
Foraging
seeking out and eating food. It is driven by bio, psy, and social influences
Lateral hypothalamus
promotes hunger
Ventromedial hypothalamus
promotes satiety
Polygyny
Males having exclusive relationships with multiple females
Polyandry
Females having exclusive relationship with multiple males
Sensory bias
development of a trait that results in a preference that exist in the population
Fisherian selection
a trait that is sexually desirable and more likely to be passed on
Game theory
refers to decision making behavior and the influences of it (strategy, reward/punishment, profit/cost)
Zero sum game
a situation where the gains or loses of the participants is balanced by the gains or loses of the other participants.
Ex/ online daters view potential mates as inevitably being taken by themselves or someone else
Inclusive fitness
A measure of an individuals success in a population. This is based on the offspring: the individuals support of them and their ability to support themselves and others
Primacy effect
first impressions are often more important than subsequent impressions
Recency effect
the most recent impressions are more important
Implicit personality theory
People make assumptions about how different types of people are related based on their traits and behavior. Ex/ stereotyping
Halo effect
a cognitive bias that states that judgements about a specific aspect of a person can be effected by the overall impression of the individual (positive or negative)
Just world hypothesis
a cognitive bias that states that in a just world, good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people
Self serving bias
refers to the fact that individuals view their own success based on internal factors and view failures based on external factors
Attribution theory
Tendency of others to infer the causes of other peoples behaviors. There can be dispositional attributions (internal) or situational attributions (external)
Consistency cues
consistent behavior of a person over time. More likely to associate the behavior with the motives of the person
Consensus cues
The extent to which a person’s behavior differs from others. More likely to form a dispositional attribution to explain it
Distinctivness cues
The extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across different scenarios. More likely to form a situational attribution it explain it
Correspondent inference theory
When an individual performs an action that helps/hurts us, we explain the behavior by dispositional attribution
Fundamental attribution theory
States that we are biased toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational, especially in negative context. Ex/ road rage
Attribute substitution
occurs when individuals must make judgements that are complex, but instead substitute a simple solution.
Ex/ when asked how much of a cube is taken up by a sphere, a person thinks about it in relation to a circle inside a square
Paternalistic sterotype
A group is looked down upon as inferior (high warmth, low competent). In medicine it is known as “doctor knows best”
Contemtuous sterotype
a group is viewed with resentment/anger (low warmth, low competent)
Admiration sterotype
a group is viewed with pride (high warmth, high competent)
Self fulfilling prophecy
occurs when stereotypes lead to expectations within a group. This expectation can create conditions that lead to confirmation of those expectations.
Ex/ the stereotype of med students not being able to knot a suture so they become nervous
Stereotype threat
when people are nervous about confirmation a negative stereotype about their group. Ex/ women driving, gay couples being parents
Prejudice
irrational positive or negative attitude toward a group prior to actual experience with that group. Ex/ power, prestige, and class influence prejudice
Ethnocentricism
Judging other cultures based on the values and beliefs of ones own culture. This is based on in-groups and out-groups
Discrimination
behavior that occurs when prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a group to be treated differently from others
Functionalism
the study of the structure and function of each part of a society
Manifest functions
actions that are meant to improve a part of a system
Latent functions
manifest functions that have unintentional positive consequences on other parts of society
Conflict theory
Refers to how power differences are created and how they contribute to the maintenance social order (Karl Marx)
Symbolic interactionalism
The way people view the world and interact through a shared understanding of language, gestures, and symbols (Ex/ a TV ad as a symbol). Symbolic interactionalists study the effects of social constructs (ex/ segregation)
Social constructionism
How individuals form the significance of principles or concepts in their society (in their perceived reality)
Ex/ how we define justice/honor, paper money/coins, work ethic, gender roles
Exchange theory
an individual will carry out certain behaviors based on anticipated rewards/punishments from a group/society
Beneficence
act in the patients best interest
Nonmalelificence
do not harm
Autonomy
respecting that patients can make their own decisions
Justice
treating each patient equally
4 tenets of medical ethics
Benevolence, nonmaleficence, justice, autonomy
Teacher expectancy
The idea that a students performance is dependent on a teachers belief in their ability. This is an example of a self fulfilling prophecy
Denomination
relates to the church and coexisting beliefs
Sect
a group that has broken off from the parent religion and can sometimes form a cult
Capitalist vs. socialist economies
capitalism is little to no intervention from the government so private corporations see most of the profit. Socialist treat industries as a collective and distribute profit among the work force
Symbolic culture
focuses on the ideas that represent a group of people or ideas. Ex/ the phrase “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness”
Culture lag
symbolic culture is slower to change that material culture. Ex/ smartphone evolution is faster than acceptance of less privacy
Ritual
Ceremony that involves objects, symbols, AND behaviors
Ex/ saying the pledge of allegiance in front of the American flag every day
Gender
a social construct that is set of behavioral, cultural, and psychological traits
Race
a social construct dependent of phenotypical traits of a group. Ex/ Black
Racial formation theory
racial identity is fluid and dependent on current political, economic, and social factors
Ethnicity
a social construct that sorts people by cultural factors like language, nationality, and religion. Ex/ African-American, Latino
Symbolic ethnicity
when ethnic symbols and identity remain important, but do not play a significant role in daily life
Intersectionality
the association of multiple demographic factors that leads to discrimination and oppression. Ex/ race, ethnicity, and immigration status influencing access to health care
Crude rate
the total rate for a population (fertility and mortality)
Demographic transition
Stage 1: pre-industrial society with high birth/death
Stage 2: improved healthcare, sanitation, wages lead to decreased death
Stage 3: Improved contraception and women’s rights and a shift from agriculture to industry decreases birth rate
Stage 4: industrial society with low birth/death rates
*The population will increase over the 4 stages
Demographic shift
Any change in the demographics of a population over a period of time
Malthusian theory
focuses on how the exponential growth of a population can outpace the growth of food supply and lead to social degradation
Relative deprivation
a decrease in resources or representation, relative to the past or the whole society, can motivate social movements
Proactive social movements
promote social change
Ex/ response to a insufficient job market.
Reactive social movements
resist social change
Ex/ response to police brutality
Social stratification
Focuses on social inequalities and is related to socioeconomic status
False conciousness
the misconception of where you stand within a society
Prestige
the positive regard society has for a given person or idea
Anomie
Lack of social norms, or the breakdown of social bonds.
Accelerates social inequality
Strain theory
Anomic conditions lead to deviance.
Ex/ if the American dream (hard work) does not work (because of the messed up social structure), deviant behavior like theft may occur to achieve the goal
Social capitol
benefits one receives from group association
Cultural capitol
benefits one receives from education, experience, abilities and skills (non-financial social aspect)
Meritocracy
Intellectual talent (skill) and achievement are factors for social mobility but does not always guarantee it. Ex/ token economy
Plutocracy
rule by the upper classes. Social mobility is low and wealth in unevenly distributed
Urbanization
When dense areas of population create a pull for migration. Example of demographic shift
Social reproduction
The idea that social inequality can be passed on from one generation to the next
Structural poverty
based on the concept of “holes” in the structure of society rather than poverty due to the actions of individuals
Urban decay
a result of suburbanization and can lead to gentrification (urban renewal)
Incidence
measure of the number of new cases of an illness
Prevalence
measure of the number of cases of an illness overall
Second sickness
a theory proposed by Howard Waitzkin to describe the exacerbation (worsening) of health outcomes caused by social injustice
Medicare
covers patients over 65, those with end stage renal disease, and those with ALS
Medicaid
covers patients that are financially in need
Confabulation
The process of creating vivid but fabricated memories. Symptom of Korsakoff syndrome
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development
Based on a series of crises that derive from conflicts between needs and social demands
Physiological revolution
Apart of the identity vs. role confusion stage (adolescence) of Erickson’s psychosocial development. It’s the ability to see yourself as a unique person
Freud’s stages of psychosexual development
Based on children facing conflict between societal demands and the desire to reduce the libidinal tension associated with different erogenous zones of the body
Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning
Based on the development of moral thinking. As our cognitive abilities grow, we are able to think about the world in more complex ways. This affects the way we solve problems and perceive right and wrong.
- Pre-conventional = children
- Conventional morality = normal adult reasoning.
- Post-conventional = a small subset of adults (social contract and universal human ethics)
Self disclosure
When the sharing of feelings and thoughts are met with non-judgemental empathy. This leads to increased attraction between individuals
Similarity
Liking stimuli similar to you
Familiarity effect
Liking stimuli that you are exposed to often
Indicator traits
Traits that signify overall good health and well-being of an organism, increasing attractiveness to mates
Alcohol
Increases dopamine production and GABA receptor activity
Septal nuclei
One of the primary pleasure centers in the brain and is associated with addictive behavior
Antisocial personality
Pattern of disregard for, or violation of, the rights of others
Paranoid personality
Pattern of pervasive mistrust of others and suspicion regarding their motives
Dynamic filtering
Hypothesis about the selection of info by the working memory, in which potentially irrelevant info or interfering info is excluded depending on task demands
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
Stage of sleep between sleep cycles. Arousal levels are on par with wakefulness, but muscles are paralyzed. Dreaming and memory consolidation occurs
REM rebound
Exhibited in people who sleep normally after sleep deprivation (one cannot make up for lost sleep). It is an earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal
Population bottleneck
Event that dramatically reduces the size of a population
Prefrontal cortex
Executive function of perception, emotion (injury can cause personality changes), impulse control, and long-term planning
Anticipatory socialization
Process where a person prepares fo impending changes in his/her life
Positive symptoms
behavior, thoughts, or feelings added to normal behavior: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thought
Negative symptoms
absence of normal or desired behavior: blunting, avolition, flat effect
Circadian rhythm
Alignment of physiological processes with the 24 hr day. It can be reset or shift based on external stimuli (light and darkness). It develops as children age, but it is not seen in infants
Night terros
Periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow wave sleep
Somnambulism
Sleep walking. Occurs during slow wave sleep
Stages of sleep
Stage 1: theta waves
Stage 2: theta waves + sleep spindles and K complexes
Stage 3 and 4: slow wave sleep, delta waves
Final: REM sleep
REM behavior disorder
The body does not have a mechanism to prevent voluntary muscle movements, so a person experiences extensive physical activity during REM sleep
Sleep cycle
A single complete progression through the sleep stages. The makeup of the cycle changes through the night with SWS predominating early in the night and REM sleep dominating late at night
Race vs. ethnicity
Social construct based on phenotypical appearance vs. social construct based on cultural traits (language, clothing, religion)
Absolute vs. relative poverty
Poverty when people don’t have enough resources to acquire basic living necessities vs. poverty when you’re poor compared to a larger population
Cognitive vs. affective processes
Thoughts/beliefs based on knowledge vs. feelings
Selye’s general adaption syndrome
People’s responses to variable stressors are similar Ex/ physical and social stressors
Distress vs. eustress
Stress after a negative stressor vs. stress after a positive stressor
Howard Garner’s theory of multiple intelligences
7 defined intelligences: linguistic, logical-math, visual-spatial, body-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. He believes that in Western society, the first two are the most important (tested on IQ test)
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
IQ = mental age / chronological age x 100
Beliefs vs. values
A belief is something that an individual accepts to be true. They are taught by family, friends, and other members of society. Values dictate one’s ethical principles and standards of behavior because that person deems it important in life (ex. honestly, trust, loyalty, kindness)
Watson’s “Little Albert” study
Explains fear generalization. An infant was scared of a white rat and then experienced fear around other furry white things (at other ages)
Sheriff’s Robber’s Cave experiment
Conflict arises between groups when they are competing for limited resources
Zimbardo’s Stanford prison study
To study the roles people play in prison situations
Milgram’s shock experiment
Tested obedience and how far people would go obeying instruction if it involved harming people
Aligning actions
When someone makes questionable behavior acceptable through excuses
Alter-casting
When someone imposes an identity onto another person
Downward drift hypothesis
Schizophrenia causes a decline in socioeconomic status
Method od loci
Mnemonic technique used by associating info with a location along a route of a building that has been already memorized
Whole report vs. partial report
Methods used to test sensory memory. Recalling all of the info given vs. recalling a portion of the info given
Bureaucracy
Organization where the goal is performing complex tasks as efficiently as possible by dividing work among bureaus
Poverty of the stimulus argument
Children do not hear enough speech patterns to learn languages in the short time that they do
The Big Five
5 traits that are important in a collaborative environment: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism
Activation-synthesis theory of dreaming
Dreams are caused by random widespread activation of neural circuits
Monocular vs. binocular cues
Relative size of object, partial obscuring of one object by another, linear perspective, motion parallax, position of object in a visual field, and lighting and shadowing VS. the angle required between the 2 eyes to bring an object into view, and the differences in images projected on the 2 retinas
Health disparities
Preventable differences in the burden of disease, injury, violence, or opportunities to achieve optimal health that are experienced by socially disadvantaged people
Depersonalization/derealization disorder
Characterized by feelings of automation and trouble recognizing oneself. Causes impairments of daily activities. No psychotic symptoms are displayed
Cognitive processes theory of dreaming
Dreams are an extension of waking consciousness
Neurocognitive theory of dreaming
Relates to the cognitive and physiological aspects of dreaming
Systematic desensitization
The use of increasing proximal stimuli to gradually reduce the fear response in individuals
