Before Midterm 2 Flashcards
Biologyical psychologist/neuroscientists
Study the brain and behaviour
Phrenology
Studying the structure of brain and heavier
-shape, size and protrusions
-mapped out portions of the brain
Phrenology believed that protrusions of the cranium meant…
That certain people had larger parts of the brain
-smarter in those areas
Phrenology: where there are differences between people there must also be..
Structural brain differences between them
How was phrenology disproven
When found that damage to areas that should correspond to certain traits mapped out, did not in fact
-the brain is not just one region, it is rather a connection of multiple areas articulating together
Electrical stimulation studies
Investigating brain function, by electrically stimulating the brain during neurosurgery
Who was the American-Canadian neurosurgeon, integral to electrical stimulation studies
Wilder Penfield
ESS supported the idea that neural communication is ____ in nature
Electrical
Wilder Penfield
Mapped brain cortex
-using electrical stimuli’s on a certain location
-a lot of poking and guessing
ESS was not interested in:
The consequences of “poke and guess”
Lesion studies
Created damage to a specific area to understand impairment
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Recording of the brains electrical activity at the surface of the skull
-like a capsule with all the cords/buttons
-created a spreadsheet of region:response
EEG advantages/disadvantages
A- noninvasive, high temporal resolution
D- no information in individual cell activity, or accurate region activity
Computed tomography (CT scan)
Multiple X-rays to build a 3D reconstitution of the brain
CT scan advantage/disadvantage
A- detects dense tissue
D- static image, doesn’t show activity over time
Positron Emission Tomography (PET scan)
Since an active brain requires glucose, attach radio to bind with glucose to see what part of the brain is using glucose (active) and when
PET scan advantage/disadvantage:
A- helpful for isotope drugs and seeing where they are used
D- invasive, static image, poor spatial resolution
Structural MRI
Uses magnetic fields to indirectly visualize Brian structure
What is better at detecting soft tissue (MRI or CT)
MRI
MRI advantages/disadvantages
A- better soft tissue detection, higher spatial resolution
D- expensive, static, no activity over time
FMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)
Detects the changes in blood oxygenation + flow that occur in response to neural activity
-vibrates the iron in blood
FMRI advantages/disadvantages
A- activity over time is represented, spatial resolution
D- poor temporal resolution, expensive
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
Measures brain activity by detecting tiny magnetic fields generated by the brain
MEG advantages/disadvantages
A- good temporal, and spatial
D- not good at detecting deep activity, expensive, technologically difficult
Deep brain stimulation (DBS)
Battery powered electrodes are implanted in brain, which shows electrical stimulation in certain areas
-neuropsychological conditions
DBS advantage/disadvantages
A- treat neuropsychological conditions
D- very invasive, general surgery risks, lack of control once implanted
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
Strong/quick magnetic field to surface of skull
-interrupt or enhance brain function/signal
TMS advantage/disadvantage
A- Inhibits neural function for moments
D- can cause seizures, only operates on cortex
Localization of function
When certain brain areas are found to be particularly active during a specific psychological task
Electrical process
Occurs inside neuron
Chemical process
How one cell communicates with another cell
Neuron
-ns cell
sends messages from one area to another using electrical/chemical process
Parts of neuron
-cell body
-dendrites
-axon
-axon terminal
Cell body/soma
Contains nucleus and cell membrane
-keeps cell alive and functioning
Dendrites
-growing out of soma
-capture signals from outside neuron
-chemicals bind onto receptor sites to activate a response
Axon
“Cell toso”
-contains myelin sheath and nodes of ranvier
-push signal away from neuron (cell body)
Axon terminals
Electrical signal will release chemicals into synaptic space from axon terminals
Neural communication occurs due to
Synaptic junction
Chemical information is transferred at the
Synapse
Glial cells
Cells in the nervous system
-supports neurons and neuronal functioning
Astrocytes
Responsible for BBB
Oligiodendrocyte
Responsible for myelin sheath of some axons
Myelin sheath
Collection of fatty tissue attached to axon
-highly conductive
Myelinated neurons
Pass signal along axon much faster than unmyelinated neurons
MS, Parkinson’s
Demyelination diseases
-results in motor problems
Action potential
The formation of the electrical impulse
-neuron has fired
Resting potential
Neuron is not signaled or isn’t firing
-voltage charge is relative to outside solution
-consistent
Resting potential charge:
-70 mv
Threshold
A value that needs to be met to create an action potential
-all or nothing
Depolarization
Action potential is generating
-positive
Depolarization number
40mv
Repolarized
Cell is “refreshing” to repeat actions of AP
-getting more negative
Hyperpolarixation
Cell drops even more negative than resting potential
Absolute refractory period
Cell returning back to baseline (repolarization)
-cannot active or generate new impulse
Relative refractory period
if gets enough (usually more) stimulation will reactive
-hyperpolarization/below resting potential
-needs 25mv
Generally speaking how much electrical stimuli’s needs to reach threshold (from -70mv)
Needs 15mv
How long is an action potential
1s
All or none law
The cell either fires or does not fire
-no half measures
-stronger signals do not cause stronger AP
What does a stronger signal do
Creates MORE action potential
-rate of firing is increased
Chemical neuron communications
-occurs among neurons
-neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites on densities of post synaptic neuron
Neurotransmitters
Chemical substances that carry messages across the synapse
-excite
-inhibit
Five steps of chemical communication in order
-synthesis
-storage
-release
-binding
-deactivation
Two broad categories of neurotransmitters
-excitatory (depolarization)
-inhibitory (hyperpolarization)
Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP)
Postynaptic depolarization
-postsynaptic neuron more likely to fire
-toward threshold
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPP)
Postsynaptic hyperpolarization
-postsynaptic neuron less likely to fire
-further from threshold
Presynaptic neuron sends chemical signal to
Postsynaptic neuron
Synthesis
Building neurotransmitters in the vessel
storage
Storage in synaptic vesicles
Release
Release into synaptic space
Binding
Binding to receptor sites
Deactivation
Deactivation through or reputable of breakdown
-chemicals can float back inside
Role of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters
Ensure action potential is reached, and that there is a period of time for the cell to refresh
EPSP receptor
A or B
IPSP receptor
D or E
Glutamate
Main excitatory NT
-sensory and learning
-alcohol and sensory enhancers
GABA
Main inhibitory NT
-alcohol and anti anxiety
Norepinephrine
Cortical arousal
-amphetamine and methamphetamine
Acetylcholine
Cortical arousal, selective attention, memory (Alzheimer’s), muscle contradiction
-nicotine, memory enhancers, Botox
Dopamine
Motor function, reward and pleasure
-L dopa used to treat Parkinson’s disease, antipsychotics (hallucinations)
Serotonin
Mood regulation, aggression, sleep wake cycles and temperature
-SSRI anti depressants
Endorphins
Pain killers
-codeine, morphine, heroine
Anandamide
Pain killers, increase in appetite
-tetrahydrocannabinol (weed)
Psychoactive drugs
Drugs that impact the nervous system
Drugs can be either
Agonist or antagonist
Agonist
Drug enhances activity at the receptor site
-binds to receptor site or blocks reuptake
Antagonist
Drug reduces activity at the receptor site
-binds to receptor site and blocks neurotransmitters
Neural plasticity
Ability of neurons to change over time
-structural or functional
Networks of neurons in the brain change over the course of development in four primary ways
-growth
-synaptogenesis
-pruning
-myelination
Synaptogenesis
Creation of new synapses
Neurogensis
Repairing brain damage
-only happens sometimes
Stem cells
Undifferentiated cells
-have capacity to become any type of cell in the body
Three areas related to neural plasticity
-developmental
-learning
-following injury and or degeneration
Plasticity and development
When an individual’s brain is growing during early years
Myelination
Speeding up communication between neurons
-usually heavily used neurons
Growth
Early aged individuals don’t have as many differentiated cells, and shorter dendrites
So…
-neurons grow dendrites (more receptor sites)
-axons extend on neurons
Synaptogenesis
More synapses
-with growth of dendrites and axons, more axon terminals are grown
Pruning
Process of the brain filtering unnecessary neurons
-due to rapid periods of growth and chaos
-enhances efficient
CNS
Brain and spinal cord
Brain is made up of
-forebrain
-midbrain
-hindbrain
Forebrain is made up of
-cerebral cortex
-basal ganglia
-limbic system
Hindbrain is made up of
-Cerebellum
-brain stem
Brain stem is made up of
-pons
-medulla
Plasticity and learning
-creation of new synapses
-memory function and activation
The brain changes as we learn
Potentiation
The change of the structure and activation patterns of neurons due to repetitive stimulation
-emphasizing the certain activity that is used more
Structural plasticity
Neurons change shape as a function of activation
-neurons will be physically larger with more stimulation (enrichment)
Limbic system is made up of
-Hippocampus
-amygdala
-nucleus accumbens
-thalamus
-hypothalamus
PNS
Somatic and autonomic
Somatic system
Voluntary muscle activation
-sensory and motor nerves
Plasticity in injury and degeneration
Sometimes neural connections of brain regions can take place of others
-neural genesis
Neurogenesis
Idea that individuals can regrow and repair damaged neurons
-mostly in hippocampus
-not very common
Theorized way of fixing damage to brain, using stem cells
Implantation of stem cells, can induce them to differentiate and repair/replace damaged areas
Autonomic system controls
-smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands
-involuntary
Autonomic system makes up
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
Spinal cord
-connects peripheral ns with the brain
-relays information from body to brain, then back down
-contains spinal reflexes
Spinal reflexes
Various spinal nerves that bundle together to relay reflexes
Damage to spinal cord
Will absolutely sever any function related to that area
-paralysis
Spinal cord is protected by
Vertebrae
Pathway to brain from receptor
Receptor—> sensory—> interneuron—> motor neuron —> reaction
Cerebral cortex
The outer wrinkly layer of the brain
-divided into two hemispheres
Hemispheres are connected via the
Corpus callosum
Left hemisphere of the cortex majors in
-fine tuned language skills
-motor actions
Right hemisphere cortex majors in
-coarse language
-visuospatial skills
Lobes of the cortex
-frontal
-parietal
-temporal
-occipital
Frontal lobe
-motor function
-organization
-language
-memory
Parietal lobe
Sensory
-touch, temp, pain, perception
Temporal lobe
Auditory processing
Occipital lobe
Visual processing
What separates frontal and parietal lobe
Central sulcus
Basal ganglia
Motor function
-collections of neurons
-damage results in tremors or involuntary movements
Amygdala
Emotional response: aggression or fear
-fight or fight
Hippocampus
Memory
Hypothalamus
Survival skills, and homeostasis
-hunger, sex drive, temperature
Thalamus
Relay station/motor function
Midbrain function
-eye movement and coordination
-RAS (reticular activating system)
RAS function
Conscious awareness
-control over existence
-regulates sleep, wakefulness and attention
Eg- general anthestetic
Medulla oblongata
Breathing, swallowing, digestion
-damage usually means death
Cerebellum
Coordination, balance and muscle tone
-complicated motor movements
Damage: major motor/coordination problems
Pons
Relay station of fibres coming from spinal cord or cerebral cortex
-organizes
Pituitary gland
Controls other glands
-oxytocin
Oxytocin
-birth
-maternal and romantic love
-trust and social behaviours (good and bad)
Adrenal gland
Releases hormones during periods of stress and arousal
-just above kidneys
-adrenaline and cortisol
Chromosomes
Threads within a cells nucleus that carry genetic material
Most humans have __ chromosomes
46
Genes are composed of
2-deoxyribonucleic acid
DNA
Hereditary blueprint in genes
-contains things cells need to replicate
Genotype
Set of genes transmitted from our parents to us
-fixed at birth
Phenotype
Set of observable traits
-interaction of genotype and environmental factors
Behavioural genetics
Approach sued to examine the influence of nature (genes) and nurture (environment)
Myth 1
Heritability applies to a single individual
-interplay between genetic material and environmental factors impacting them (changes the expression)
Myth 2
Heritability tells us wether a trait can be changed
Idea: genes placed upon birth are predetermining what/who you are
-the way genes operate is really controlled by environmental factors
-range of particular traits
Myth 3
Heritability is a fixed number
Heritability
-usually measured by percentage
-not individual
Seeds and soil, myth 2
The same seeds in different quality soils will produce different heights
Three main types of behavioural genetic research designs
-family studies
-twin studies
-adoption studies
Family studies
Observing family unit, and what the likiehood of one particular trait running through the family unit
-how likely will the offspring have these traits as well
Problems with family studies
Cannot separate nature vs nurture
-different degrees of relatedness
-different environmental exposures
Good thing with family studies
Good starting point to see wether or not a gene is heritable
Twin studies
Identical twins, sharing genetic material, shared in the same household vs not int the same household
-how likely are they to have the same traits
Adoption studies
Individuals separates from birth parents
-assess similarity to children vs parents
Epigenetics
Study of heritable traits
Sensation
Detection of physical energy by our sense organs
-observed to understand perception
Perception
The brains interpretation of these raw sensory inputs
Transduction
Ns converts external stimulus into electrical signals within neurons
Sensory adaptation
Gradual decline in sensitivity due to prolonged stimulation
-do not feel clothes on skin
Adaptive process (sensory adaptation)
Keeps us attuned to the changes in our environment rather than the constants
Psychophysics
Study of how we perceive sensory stimuli’s
-based on their physical characteristics (light perceived depends on wavelength, patternicity)
Gustav fechner
First to describe the things that are required for sensation
-a stimulus
-Psychophysics
Elements der psychophysics
First to describe the fundamental of stimulus
Absolute threshold
The lowest level of a stimulus that an individual can detect
-50% of the time
-something compared to nothing
Examples of vision in absolute threshold
A candle flame seen at 50km on a dark clear night
just noticeable difference (JND)
The smallest change in the intensity of a stimulus that we can detect (50% of the time)
-difference threshold
Below difference threshold
Cannot tell difference between stimulus
Crossing JND
Stimulus is difference enough (can tell a difference)
Webers law
Constant proportional relationship between JND and original stimulus intensity
-harder to tell difference between stronger stimulus
For example: ten percent difference to detect difference (detecting 10vs11 lb or 100vs101 lb)
Weber fraction
The constant proportion, differs depending on sensory input
Signal detection
Theory that Describes how we detect stimulus under uncertain conditions
-factors that influence our ability
Cognitive factors of signal detection
-expectations
-consequences
-response requirements
Standard signal detection experiment has two important components
-1/2 of trials, one low intensity stimulus is presented
-1/2 of trails, no stimulus is presented
-trails are randomized to reduce predictability
Signal detection-hit
Detect stimulus that was present
Signal detection-miss
Fail to detect a stimulus that was present
Signal detection-false alarm
Indicate a stimulus was present when it was not
Signal detection-correct rejection
Indicate there was no stimulus when there was no stimulus
Do sensory systems only process their own information, and nothing else?
Not necessarily
-phosphenes: rubbing eye causes stars, due to mechanical pressure causing AP to occur
Johannes muller proposed
The doctrine of specific nerve energies
Doctrine of specific nerve energies
Never get interactions between different senses
Cross modal processing
Processing of signals from one sense in another sensory area
-simultaneous audio and visible sensation leading to a form of perception
Mcgurk effect
Processing speech sounds, usually visual (mouth movements) and audible (literal sounds) leads to the perception of what the individual says
-both play a role
MCGURK is —> mismatch between the two during sensation
Synesthesia
Condition where people experience cross modal sensations and perceptions
-taste color, or see sound
Most common type of synesthesia
Grapheme color synesthesia
Grapheme color synesthesia
Where a persons experience o numbers and letters are associated with the experience of color
-think of number one, see color blue
Lexical taste synesthesia ??
Attention interacts with
Perception
Two examples of the role of attention
-selective attention
-inattentional blindless
Selective attention
Allows us to select one sensory channel and ignore or minimize others
-RAS and forebrain involved
-dichotic listening tasks
Inattentional blindness
When closely paying attention to an event, one can fail to notice an unexpected and completely visible object
-moonwalking bear vid
Dichotic listening tasks
Different messages sent to each ear with headphones, supposed to repeat out loud only left ear information (selective attention)
Broadbents filter model of attention
-all info sent to sensory is pushed through a filter
-filter selectively allows only necessary information to pass onto processing purposes
What does broadbents filter model not explain
The cocktail party effect
-because some of this information is not blocked by this filter
Cocktail party effect
Idea that if your at a party talking with your friend, then someone says your name then you immediately switch focus to that conversation
-how did you know that your name was said when you were filtering out everything but your friend?
Does selective attention really filter out everything?
No, certain important words will not
Such as: name, emergency
The binding problem
Different aspects of a stimulus are processed in multiple parts of the brain, but come together as one single stimulus
-unambiguous integration
Parallel processing
Ability to attended to many sensory modalities simultaneously
Two important parallel processing
-bottom up processing
-top down processing
Bottom up processing
Construct a whole stimulus from all component pieces
-stimulus driven
Top down processing
Using past experiences, expectations, beliefs in order to make inferences in what the stimulus is
-conceptually driven
Perceptual hypotheses
Educated guesses as to likeliest conclusion based on what we know
-limited sensory input
-most likely correct
Perception is different from
Sensations
Perceptual sets
Expectations influence our perceptions in a specific way in a given circumstance
Perceptual constancy
Process by which we perceive stimuli consistently across varied conditions
-rule
Three perceptual constancies
-size
-shape
-color
Size constancy
-as things get closer to us, they take up more room = larger
-as things get further, take up less = smaller
Shape constancy
Recognize different stimulus as the same object
-different opening doors are different shapes (imagine in the slide)
Color constancy
Don’t assume that color is going to change as we look at things
-consistent pattern of colours
Gestalt principles
Rules governing how we perceive objects as a whole within their overall context
six main gestalt principles
-proximity
-similarity
-continuity
-closure
-symmetry
-figure ground
Proximity
Looking at things close together, then assume they are the same
-group things based on proximity
Similarity
Group things based on similarity
Continuity
Tend to see things as continuing
Closure
If something has lots of gaps, we tend to fill in the gaps based on experience
Symmetry
See things in most symmetrical way as possible
-also most simple way
Figure ground
What we focus on tends to be the figure, and everything else becomes the ground
-images that are trippy
Perceiving motion
Determine wether something is moving by comparing visual frames form one moment to the next
Motion blind
Meaning that you cannot string images together to allow detection of motion
-moving toward or away
Phi phenomenon
Tests for apparent motion
Apparent motion
When situation flash in different locations next to each other and movement is perceived
-no actual motion, but brain perceives as
Face perception
Humans perceive faces rapidly
-babies 2to3 weeks can imitate facial gestures without being able to see themselves
-
Depth perception
Ability to see spatial relationships between things in 3D
-front row closer to me than backrow
Monocular depth
Requires only one eye to see depth
Binocular depth
Requires two eyes to see depth
Two types of monocular depth cues
-motion parallax
-pictorial depth cues
Motion parallax
Involves imgages of objects at different distances moving across the retina
-how fast = how far something is from us
Pictorial depth cues
Cues presented in two dimension images, but are able to give depth
Linear perspective
Having two lines that appear to converge
-head on road going into the distance
Texture gradients
Image closer to the viewer (bottom of page) is more clear, images further (top of page) are blurrier
-images close to us would be more detailed
Interposition
Layering/stacking objects in front of each other, cutting each other off
-demonstrates certain objects are behind others
Relative size
One aspect of the drawing is much larger than the rest, the larger object must be closer, the smaller is further
-egg photo
Height in plane
See things that are further away lower than object closer??? I dont know
Light and shadow
Objects that cast shadow demonstrate 3D, and indicates how far from us the object is
Two main binocular depth cues
-retinal disparity
-binocular convergence
Retinal disparity
Two eyes are separated from each other
-images are slightly different from each other
-brain uses two separate information sources to determine the distance of objects
binocular convergence
In order to remain focused, the eyes need to converge toward each other
-help to determine depth
-has ton be very close to face (turn in a lot)
Auditory localization
Locating the source of a sound in space
-ears set apart helps
Auditory localization occurs due to
-sound intensity
-timing of sounds arriving at each ear
Subliminal perception
Register input but don’t actually consciously register
-extremely silent, low volume
-listening to book while sleeping
Subliminal persuasion
Sub threshold influences on our behaviour
-very rare
-only right after presentation
James viceroy
Used rapid flashes during movies to encourage popcorn sales
-below level of conscious stimulation
-subliminal perception
—-> not a lasting behavioural change
Strobe and Clauss ice tea study
Had ice tea advertisements flash, then participants were offered coke or ice tea
-more people chose ice tea
-but if offered much later, there was no difference
-has to be absolute/immediate
Amplititude affects the perception of
Brightness
Amplitude = the height of the wave
wavelength affects perception of
Color/hue
Wavelength = distance between one complete wave
Purity influences perception of
Saturation (how rich/deep a color appears)
Purity= how cohesive a wave is (not pure would not be consistent with the rest)
Light waves vary in
Amplitude, wavelength, purity
Explain wavelengths do not have color
Perception of color is rather the interpretation of the wavelengths
Sensation (wave affecting retinal centres)
Perception (color)
Parts of the eye
Cornea
-covers the eye
-lets light in, focuses light onto retina
-clear membrane
Lens
-focus light onto retina
-flexible and adjusts for near/far objects
Accommodations
The eyes ability to adjust lens with cilliary muscles
focusing on a close object lens will
Get fatter/rounder
Focusing on distant objects the lens will
Flatten out
Presbyopia
Age related change to visual system and capacity
-difficult to compress lens, changes ability of near point
Near point
The point at which the lens can no longer adjust to focus an image
Myopia vs hyperopia
Myopia- near sighted
Hyperopia- far sighted
Fovea
Responsible for acuity
-found in retina
Cones vs rods
Cones- color, found in fovea
Rods- black and w, peripheral vision
Sicades
Movement of eye to assist in maximum light entering retina
-involuntary
Why are there more rods than cones
Rods cover much more space along retina
-cones are densely in the fovea
Trichromatic theory
Color vision depends on activity of three different color receptor types
-red, green, blue
Opponent process theory
Color vision is related to opposing responses by blue/yellow and red/green
Trichromatic theory explains what well
The types of color blindness
Trichromats
Three kinds of cones
Dichromats
2 kinds of cones
Monchromats
1 kind of cone, no color vision
Trichromatic theory cannot explain what
Afterimages
-looking at a color for a long time, then looking away, you may see a differently coloured replica of the same image
Dual process theory
Incorporates both trichromatic and opponent process theory to explain color vision
Cells in retina from front to back
Ganglion to bipolar to photoreceptor
Hubel & weisel
Found other cells that fire to certain patterns and orientations
-simple (shape) vs complex (shape/location) feature detector cells
Feature detector cells
Highly selective, respond to specific detections
-specialized for shape, location, conture
Sound waves are
Vibrations of molecules that travel through a medium
Frequency of sound
-pitch
-rate at which waves vibrate
-hertz
Amplitude of sound
-loudness
-intensity of sound, height of wave
-dB
Complexity of sound
-timbre
-uniqueness of the wave
Allows to distinguish the sound of a trombone from a violin
Loudness ___ every ___
Doubles every 6-10dB
Sounds >120dB
Painful, and causes damage
Structure of the ear
Middle ear composed of
Ossicles (amplify changes in pressure)
Outer ear
Ear canal, pinnacle, tympanic membrane
Inner ear
Cochlea (fluid filled, contains receptors for hearing)
Receptors in cochlea are found in the
Basilar membrane
Place theory
The perception of pitch corresponds to the vibration of different portion or places along basilar membrane
-certain hairs moved more than others (where crest occurs, certain perception occurs)
-wave
Frequency theory
Perception of pitch corresponds to the rate or frequency
-entire basilar membrane vibrates
-up to 100Hz
Conductive deafness
Malfunction of ear
-failure in middle/outer ear (eardrum/ossicles)
Nerve deafness
Due to damage of the auditory nerve
Five types of taste
-bitter
-sour
-sweet
-salty
-umami (msg)
Perception of taste quality depends on
-patterns of neural activity
-learned preferences
Where does taste info go to
Gustatory cortex
No tasters vs supertasters vs medium tasters
Odour perception
-complex
-use our experience to interpret
Pheromones
Odourless chemicals that serve as social signals to members of ones own species
-humans susceptible
-signals mestruation
Flavour is a combination of
Of taste and smell
Somatosensory system
Responsible for sensation of touch, temp and pain
Four main components of somatosensory are
-nociception
-hapsis
-proprioception
-balance
Nocioception
Pain and temperature
Hapsis
Perception of objects using touch and pressure
Proprioception
Knowledge of the position of your limbs in space
Balance
Controlled by vestibular system in the inner ear
Layers of skin from top to bottom
Epidermis
Dermis
Subcutaneous
Inflammatory pain
Caused by damage to tissues and inflammation of joints or by tumour cells
Neuropathic pain
Caused by lesions or other damage to nervous system
Two types of pain pathways
-fast (A delta)
-slow (C fibre)
Vestibular system
Responds to gravity and keeps body informed of location in space
-balance
-rotation/tilt of head
Consciousness
Awareness of internal and external stimuli
-subjective
-world, bodies, mental perspectives
Circadian rhythm
-24 hour basis
-biological process of: brain waves, body, temperature and drowsiness
Circadian rhythm is regulated by
Suprachiasmaatic nucleus or SCN
Suprachiasmaatic nucleus
Body biological clock
-makes us feel drowsy
-signal pineal gland to release melatonin
Kleine-levin syndrome
Sleeping beauty disorder
-due to disruptions in Suprachiasmaatic nucleus
How much sleep do people need (regular/college/infant)
7-10 hours a day
-college students 9
-infants 16
Five stages of sleep in order
1,2,3,4,3,2,1,rem,1,2
Beta waves versus alpha waves
B- 12/13 cycles/sec (awake/alert)
A- 8-12 cycles/sec (relaxed/drowsy)
Stage 1
-light sleep
-5 to 10 minutes long
-changes from alpha/beta (awake) to theta (falling asleep)
-myoclonic jerks and hypnagogic imagery
Theta waves
4-7 cycles/sec
Stage 2
-10 to 15 min
-sleep spindles
-k complexes
-heart rate slows, temp decreases, eye movements stop
-theta waves
Stage 3
-slow wave sleep
-delta waves (very deep)
-20 to 50 percent delta
-help to feel rested
Stage 4
-slow wave sleep
-delta waves (very deep)
-50+ percent delta waves
-important to feel rested
Delta waves
0.5 to 2 cycles/second
REM sleep
-20 to 50 percent of sleep
-last between 20min to 1hour
-eye darts around
-middle ear muscle activity
-bodies paralyzed
When does dreaming take place
REM and NREM (stages 1-4)
-more commonly in REM
Lucid dreaming
Experience of becoming aware that you are dreaming while asleep
Insomnia
Difficulty falling and staying asleep
-waking too early, waking up in the night and cannot fall back asleep
How to avoid/treat insomnia
-going to bed habits
-sleeping pills, or psychotherapy
Narcolepsy
Sudden sleep periods
-due to genetic factors or brain damage, lack of hormone orexin
How to treat narcolepsy
-modafinil
-orexin replacement
Sleep apnea
Blockage of airway during sleep resulting in daytime fatigue
Treatment of sleep apnea
Weight loss, surgical removal of tonsils, CPAP machine
Night terrors
Sudden waking episodes
-mainly in childre
-last a few minutes
Dreams why?
-process emotional memories
-integrate new experiences
-learn strategies
-simulating events to cope later
-reorganize and consolidate memories
Freuds dream protection theory
Dreams are guardians of sleep
-dreams protect our impulses when we sleep
-transforms impulses into symbols representing wish fulfilment
Freuds dream manifest and latent content
Manifest- experience in dreams
Latent- hidden meaning behind dreams
Activation synthesis
Dreams reflect brain activation in sleep
-dreams are brain making sense of random internal generated neural signals
Neurocognitive theory
Dreams are more than random neural impulses
-reflect concerns and relate to our lived experiences
-dreams are simulations to explore possible outcomes
Dream continuity hypothesis
Dreams mirror life circumstances
What part of the brain plays a big role in dreaming
Forebrain
Damage to what parts of the brain will affect dreaming ability
Frontal and parietal lobes
