BB Flashcards
Ubiquinone
is the fully oxidized form of coenzyme Q, which participates in the electron transport chain in the mitochondrial membrane. Complex 2, takes e to C3
In genetic leakage, the hybrid offspring of two diff parental species must be ______
Fertile
Independent variable is _______ by scientists
manipulated
slope of a Lineweaver-Burk plot is equal to
the Km/Vmax ratio,
a decreased value for Km (decreased numerator) and an increased Vmax value (increased denominator) both contribute to a decreased slope.
DNA polymerase role in DNA repair
DNA polymerase helps the correct base to pair with the opposite strand, and a ligase enzyme catalyzes formation of new phosphodiester bonds
Endonuclease vs Exonuclease
the DNA backbone is cleaved by exonucleases (end of chain)
endonucleases cleave phosphodiester bonds within a strand (mid chain somewhere)
To assess how nitrogen base pairs match:
Hydrogen bond donors and acceptors must be aligned
A,T make two bonds
G,C make three
Proteins with ubiquitin tags are typically ___
targeted to the proteasome for destruction.
Gibbs is characterized by ____ actions, free energy decreases with each __ action
spontaneous
Competitive inhibitors bind ___ only
Uncompetitive inhibitors bind ___ only
Mixed inhibitors bind _____, though they may have a higher affinity for ____, or vice versa
Noncompetitive inhibitors are a special case of mixed inhibitor in which the affinities for E and ES are _____
Competitive inhibitors bind E only
Uncompetitive inhibitors bind ES only
Mixed inhibitors bind both E and ES, though they may have a higher affinity for E than for ES, or vice versa
Noncompetitive inhibitors are a special case of mixed inhibitor in which the affinities for E and ES are exactly equal
Chaperone proteins help in __
folding
What is a signal sequence and where is it never found?
tells mRNA where to go (like transmembrane protein to ER) usually to secretory pathway, never on functional proteins
DNA dispersive model of replication?
in which bases segregate randomly to daughter strands.
DNA made 5–>3 , What attaches to what?
1st nucleotide 3C hydroxyl attaches to 2nd nucleotide 5C phosphate hydroxyl
5’ UTR is _____ of promotor so it is _____
upstream
transcribed just not translated
A mature mRNA consists of ____
a 5’-cap (one base pair) the 5' UTR coding regions 3' UTR Poly(A) tail
Most compact structure in chromatin?
Nucleosomes more compact than any chromatin structure
Acetylation of histones involves the transfer of an ____, increasing gene expression by disrupting _____ between histones and DNA.
acetyl group to positively charged amino groups on lysine or arginine residues
Salt bridges
Why does GC have more pi stacking?
G-C has 3 bonds so less rotation, more stability, more pi stacking
DNA coding strand will always be ____ mRNA except with U instead of T
Same as, U instead of T
Describe Thymine and Uracil similarity and difference
both have 2 carbonyls and an amine group
T has a methyl as well
The molecular weight of dNMPs in decreasing order is dine (dCMP).
deoxyguanosine (dGMP), deoxyadenosine (dAMP), deoxythymidine (dTMP), and deoxycytidine (dCMP).
siRNA?
siRNAs are highly specific
synthesized to reduce the translation of specific messenger RNAs (mRNAs)–> reduce the synthesis of particular proteins
form from double-stranded RNA transcribed and then cut to size in the nucleus before releasing into the cytoplasm.
For nucleotides, Tm is ____
is temp at which 50% of dsDNA unfolded to ssDNA
Transcription factor?
has a DNA-binding domain that allows it to bind to regulatory nucleic acid sequences in a gene to alter transcription
How does drop in pH affect DNA?
protonation of hydrogen-bond acceptors 🡪 loss in base-pairing interactions.
Presence of positive ions does what to DNA?
presence of positive ions in solution (particularly Mg2+) 🡪 stabilization of the DNA fold via shielding of the repulsion between phosphate groups within the DNA backbone
Lipid raft is membrane region with high ____concentration
Cholesterol
Enzymes cannot alter _____ structure of protein but can alter _____ conditions
Enzymes cannot alter primary structure of protein but can alter local pH conditions
uncompetitive inhibitor will work most effectively when the substrate concentration is the ____
Why?
uncompetitive inhibitors bind their target enzymes only when the substrate is first bound to the enzyme. Since at higher substrate concentrations, the substrate–enzyme complex are more abundant, the uncompetitive inhibitor will work most effectively when the substrate concentration is the highest
What is Kd?
Eqn?
relation to strength of substrate binding?
Kd is the dissociation constant. It tells you how well a specific substrate will bind to the enzyme.
Kd= [E][S]/[ES]
The smaller the Kd, the stronger the Substrate is bound to the Enzyme.
kcat is used to describe the ______ of catalysis under saturating conditions of substrate
rate limiting
traditional Michaelis–Menten kinetics describes a _____ dependence of Vo on substrate concentration
hyperbolic
Kinase action and naming?
kinase transfers a phosphate group to the substrate, it makes sense that it would transfer the one at the very end (with the free end). Naming nomenclature goes alpha, beta, gamma, delta… It’s the third phosphate group so gamma-phosphate
Ternary enzyme complex?
– 1 enzymes, 2 subs
Michaelis Menten - enzymes conc always has to be ____ to find vmax
Michaelis Menten - enzymes conc always has to be limiting to find vmax , S»E
Hill coefficient?
Hill coefficient measures cooperativity (i.e. hemoglobin, you see sigmoidal kinetic curves, not following michaelis menten) n>1 = cooperativity, n=1 no cooperativity n<1 = negative cooperativity
How do glucocorticoids affect muscle strength?
glucocorticoids increase gluconeogenesis and amino acid breakdown from muscles, causing long term muscle weakness
Non reducing sugar?
non reducing - no free anomeric carbons
Non reducing sugars (_____) cannot undergo mutarotation. The process of mutarotation requires ____
No hemiacetal groups
ring opening, which occurs at a hemiacetal group
Which C is anomeric in fructose?
anomeric carbon is C2, not C1
L and D sugar configuration
Sugars are classified as L or D based on the configuration of the highest numbered chiral carbon (the anomeric carbon is assigned the lowest number possible)
R config – D
S config – L
alpha and beta sugars?
Sugars classified as a or B due to anomeric config
B is cis / equatorial
A is trans / axial
cis and trans to CH2OH group
Commensalism
When one species benefits but the other species is neither helped nor harmed, that is commensalism
Which amino acids disrupt alpha helices?
Proline and glycine disrupt α-helices and are not commonly found within them
pull down term definition
A pull down for a protein is a generic term for pulling out a protein from a cell lysate (or from a particular fraction of a cell like the nuclear fraction) with the help of another protein that binds to it.
Avg weight of amino acid is
110 Da
Salt bridges in proteins are bonds between
oppositely charged residues
Dimerization occurs where and why?
in cytosol , hydrophobic side chains conjoin
At pH 7 histidine charge?
neutral, bc pka is 6
unfolding of proteins is a _____ process. Cooperative processes are marked by _____
unfolding of proteins is a cooperative process. Cooperative processes are marked by sigmoidal curves
Urea affect on protein?
Urea induces the unfolding and denaturation of proteins by exposing hydrophobic groups and interfering with hydrogen bonding in the amino acid backbone.
Oxidative phosphorylation in which processes is it used?
aerobic glycolysis
generation of ATP from β-oxidation
ETC
Where is water used in Krebs?
there’s only one reaction in the TCA that involves the addition of water which is the fumarase-catalyzed step to form malate
Stereospecific products in Krebs?
citric acid cycle makes two stereospecific things, L malate and D isocitrate
The fluidity of a cell membrane is largely dependent on ____
lengths of the fatty acyl tails in the bilayer + number of double bonds in each tail.
Short chains with double bonds yield the highest fluidity because they participate in the fewest hydrophobic interactions with neighboring lipids
Myoglobin?
Myoglobin is the substance that holds oxygen in the muscles and organs
Vasoconstriction affect of velocity and BP?
Vasoconstriction 🡪 increased velocity and decreased pressure of blood, blood diverted from certain organs, helps during times of hemorrhage
Is atp synthase in bacteria
yer
How does dehydration deteriorate kidney?
Dehydration 🡪 less blood to kidney 🡪 kidney failure (not bc of salt buildup)
Increase heat transfer from organism to environment by
increase superficial blood flow or increase respiration
Southern blot (DNA) and restriction sites?
Southern blot uses a restriction digest to differentiate between mutant and wild-type alleles. In order for a Southern blot to be useful, the mutation should either create or eliminate a restriction site, most of which are palindromes and 4 to 6 base pairs long
Pellet vs supernatant
when you centrifuge a given sample, the higher density portion settles to the bottom and forms a pellet and the other stuff is the supernatant
Reverse transcriptase?
Makes DNA from RNA, used to make cDNA from mRNA
In the context of a kinetics experiment it is perfectly logical to assume that albumin is added to ______ and prevent the enzyme from _______
In the context of a kinetics experiment it is perfectly logical to assume that albumin is added to maintain homogeneity and prevent the enzyme from adhering to walls and other surfaces which would inhibit its activity
Indep variable vs dep variable?
Indep variable is manipulated to assess dep variable
If in one sample 2/3 ppl are white, and you want to see their pairing results with whites again, ____
multiply by 2/3 = 4/9 chances whites will mate
Genetic drift refers to random genetic changes in allele frequency that are due to ______. Low-frequency alleles have an ______ of being lost by genetic drift compared to those present at _____
Genetic drift refers to random genetic changes in allele frequency that are due to chance events (not natural selection). Low-frequency alleles have an increased probability of being lost by genetic drift compared to those present at higher frequencies
Genetic leakage happens when hybrid offspring is ____
fertile
The ovary is a _____, all _____ are made of epithelial cells
The ovary is a gland, all glands are made of epithelial cells
Bacteria conduct oxidative phosphorylation via ____
Bacteria conduct oxidative phosphorylation via plasma membrane
Epithelial vs endothelial cells
Epithelial cells are packed together tightly into sheets that make up the outer layer of the skin (the epidermis), the secretory components of glands, and the lining of the inner cavities of the body (eg, the lumen of hollow organs). Endothelial cells are a specialized type of epithelial cell that line the inside of blood vessels and lymph vessels specifically
Glut 2 used in
hepatocytes and pancreatic cells
Glut 4 used in
adipose and muscle
Insulin impact in glycolysis?
activates PKF2 which makes Fructose 2,6 bisphosphate which activates PFK 1
allows to override ATP inhibition
RBC in anaerobic glycolysis affect on O affinity
mutase makes 2,3BPG from 1,3BPG which binds allosterically to hbA and decreases O2 affinity
DHAP converted to what and used where?
Glycerol3P by G3P dehydrogenase
- TGL synthesis in hepatic/adispose
- Electron transport shuttle
is NADH or NAD used for lactate dehydrogenase in glycoysis
NADH
In glycolysis how to identify a SLP
ATP is made
Kinase involved
step 6 and 9
Fate of galactose
glucose
fate of fructose
DHAP and glyceraldehyde-3-P
Products of pyruvate dehydrogenase
Acetyl coA
CO2
NADH
Pyruvate fate?
Acetyl CoA (pyruvate dehydrogenase)
lactate (lactate dehydrogenase)
oxaloacetate (pyruvate carboxylase)
Rate limiting enzyme of glycogenesis
Glycogen synthase
Glycogen synthase creates ___ branches
Branching enzyme creates __ branches
a-1,4-glycosidic
a-1,6-glycosidic
Glycogenolysis rate limiting enzyme
glycogen phosphorylase
gluconeogenesis substrates
glycerol 3 phosphate
lactate
gluconeogenic amino acids
Ketogenic amino acids
Lys, Leu
both keto and glucogenic aa
WIFTY
FA with odd numbered carbon atoms
can make glucose via propionyl coA
opposite of kinase
phosphatase
how are lactate and gluconeogenic amino acids entered into gluconeogenesis?
converted to pyruvate
How does pyruvate go into gluconeogenesis?
goes into mitochondria
converted to OAA by pyruvate carboxylase
OAA leaves mitochondria (reduced to malate, back to OAA)
OAA converted to PEP by PEP carboxykinase
energy molecules needed in gluconeogenesis
ATP for pyruvate carboxylase
GTP for PEP carboxykinase
rate limiting enzyme in PPP
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
Products of PPP
2x NADPH (using dehydrogenase enzymes) ribulose 5 phosphate
NADPH used for
cholesterol
FA synthesis
reduction of glutathione (ROS protection)
KREBS mnemonic
Citrate Is krebs starting substrate for making oxaloacetate
Krebs control points
citrate synthase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, a-keto dehydrogenase
FIRST 3 STEPS
name 4 ETC complexes
NADH-CoQ oxidoreductase
Succinate-CoQ oxidoreductase
Cytochrome oxidoreductase
Cytochrome oxidase
fructose is a __oxe
hexose
is sucrose reducing
no
ketoses in basic conditions make
aldoses
Deoxy sugar?
C2 sugar deprotonates
Glycogen, amylopectin, amylose, cellulose branches
a 1, 6
a 1, 6
a 1, 4
B 1, 4
amylose branched or unbranched
unbranched
steroid shape
4 cycloalkane rings
3 hex
1 pent
how are prostaglandins made?
from arachidonic acid catalyzed by COX
nucleotide is nucleoside with
phosphate
phosphodiester bond releases
PPi
Telomere sequence
TTAGGG
DNA synthesis enzymes in euk and prok
euk - DNA polymerase alpha, delta, etc
prok - DNA polymerase 3
in replication, which enzymes remove RAN in euk and prok
euk - RNAse H
prok- DNA polymerase 1
ddATP
no OH on C3, nothing can be added
protein assembled from ____ to ____ (think animo acids)
amino to carboxyl end
Transcription enzyme in euk
RNA polymerase 2
where do ribosomes bind on RNA
5 cap
P–>A site in elongation needs what enzyme
peptidyl transferase
phrenylation
adding lipid to protein
FA synthesis steps
citrate –> acetyl coA –> malonyl coA –> FA palmitate
TGL made in what and stored where
liver, in adipose as VLDL
B oxidation products
FA –> acetyl Coa (+ NADH + FADH2)
acetyl coA can go to TCA or ketones
B oxidation steps
oxidation, hydration, oxidation, splitting
even # FA vs odd # FA fate in B oxidation
even makes 2 acetyl coA
odd makes 1 acetyl coA and 1 propionyl coa
Which amino acids are ionizable?
7 Amino acids with ionizable side groups (R, K, Y, C, H, E, and D) have three pKa values
tyrosine, cysteine + 3 basic ones and 2 acidic ones
cytoplasmically inherited disorder is transmitted to offspring how?
it will be transmitted through cytoplasmic components, of which mitochondria are examples.
In a fertilized egg, the mitochondria of ova predominate over sperm’s due to ____
their much larger numbers compared to the mitochondria of sperm.
Double crossover event?
A double-crossover event is one in which chromosomal arms of homologous chromosomes cross over in two different places along the arm. This results in a section in the middle of each chromosome being exchanged
In electrophoresis, anode is
positive
Which muscle types use sarcomeres? (i.e. use troponin)
Skeletal and cardiac
Major reason for peptide bond stability
Partial double bond character from N-C resonance
alkene formation, reduction or oxidation?
oxidation possibly, bc H is lost but make sure from passage details
Going from alkene to OH, is this reduction or oxidation
Neither, OH adds two protons and an Oxygen - no net reduction or oxidation
Cholesterol effect on membrane fluidity
cholesterol acts as a buffer, increasing fluidity at low temperatures and decreasing fluidity at high temperatures.
Homologous vs analogous features?
Analogous structures are those structures that evolved independently to carry out the same function. Thus, the wing of a bee and the wing of a bird are analogous structures.
Homologous structures are those that have a similar evolutionary history, arising from the same source, even if they now have different functions. The forelimbs of mammals (human arm, walrus flipper, bat wing) would all be homologous despite their different functions.
Unsaturated fatty acids require isomerization reactions to convert __to ___ whereas saturated fatty acids do not.
Unsaturated fatty acids require isomerization reactions to convert cis-bonds to trans-bonds whereas saturated fatty acids do not.
Cholesterol has a characteristic ____ backbone, which is synthesized from five-carbon subunits called ____
Cholesterol has a characteristic four-ring backbone, which is synthesized from five-carbon subunits called isoprenes.
Bottleneck Effect
- sudden reduction in population of species
- no species is protected, occurs randomly
- reduces genetic diversity
Sign based attraction is always __ than polarity based
greater than
Mendellian genetics like recessivity and dominance not in _____ gene transmission
mitochondrial
In cDNA cloning, reverse transcriptase generates a ____ from a target ___ sequence.
In cDNA cloning, reverse transcriptase generates a single strand of cDNA from a target mRNA sequence. DNA polymerase synthesizes the second complementary DNA strand and amplifies the target cDNA sequence. The target cDNA can then be inserted into a plasmid vector via the actions of a restriction enzyme (cuts both plasmid and vector) and DNA ligase (joins the cDNA to the vector)
In general, the perceived color of a substance is complementary to the color of the wavelength that is ______ by that substance.
In general, the perceived color of a substance is complementary to the color of the wavelength that is maximally absorbed by that substance.
Red Green
Blue Orange
Violet Yellow
How does FA enter mitochondria? (3 molecules used)
FA activated by CoA into acylcoa that enters 1st mitochondrial membrane (ATP used)
acylcoA and carnitine enter matrix
carnitine dissociates
Clotting factors (mainly synthesized in the ____) are specialized proteins that become activated in response to platelet aggregation and signaling factors outside the vessel.
liver
An open reading frame (ORF) is____
An open reading frame (ORF) is a set of codons within a strand of mRNA that can be translated by a ribosome
cholesterol is made from ______ which has _ isoprene units
squalene
6 isoprene makes 1 triterpene
Cori cycle
During anaerobic exercise, pyruvate is reduced to lactate to regenerate NAD+. Lactate that builds up in muscles is sent to the liver, where it is converted back to glucose and returned to muscles. This process is called the Cori cycle.
Glycerophospholipids contain two hydrolyzable fatty acyl chains, but sphingolipids contain __
1
NADH carries___electrons in the form of a ____ ion, and these electrons enter Complex I of the ETC to reduce ubiquinone (UQ) to ubiquinol (UQH2).
NADH carries two electrons in the form of a hydride H− ion, and these electrons enter Complex I of the ETC to reduce ubiquinone (UQ) to ubiquinol (UQH2).
Catalytic turnover
Catalytic turnover refers to the rate at which an enzyme-bound substrate is converted to product. It is given by the rate constantkcat and is proportional to the maximum reaction rateVmax.
in uncompetitive inhibition, Km and Vmax decreased by ___ factor
the same factor
km
0 order
Fatty acid synthesis occurs where and needs what 3 things
Cytosol
acetyl coA, NADPH, ATP
How do medium and short chain FA enter mitochondria
simple diffusion, no needs for transporters
acetyl coa carboxylase used where
acetyl coa –> malonlyl coA –> FA
Trans amination in protein catabolism
NH3 from aa backbone transferred to a-ketoglutarate making glutamate
glutamate is deaminated to NH3 which makes urea
ketogenic amino acids can become what
carbon skeleton –> acetyl coA
then can go either
- ketone bodies/ FA synthesis
- Krebs cycle
TGL during prolonged starvation
FA goes to ketone bodies
glycerol –> glyceraldehyde3 P –> pyruvate –> acetyl coA –> ketone bodies
ketone bodies used by brain during starvation
Gap junctions in which muscles?
cardiac and smooth
Osteocytes are mature and _____ inactive bone cells that maintain bone structure. These cells release signals via ____- to other bone cells to regulate bone remodeling
mitotically inactive
canaliculi
vasoconstriction effect on BP
BP rises
Virioid
Viroids are subviral infectious particles consisting of a
- short circular single strand of RNA
- not surrounded by a protein coat
When infecting cells, viroids can bind host cellular RNA sequences, resulting in gene silencing that prevents synthesis of necessary proteins.
Antigen-presenting MHC proteins are expressed on the surface of all ___ cells (ie, except red blood cells)
Antigen-presenting MHC proteins are expressed on the surface of all nucleated cells (ie, except red blood cells)
Aldosterone also increases excretion of ____ in the urine.
Aldosterone also increases excretion of potassium and hydrogen ions in the urine.
Rapid actin polymerization near the edge of the cellular membrane is responsible for ____ in complex eukaryotic cells
Rapid actin polymerization near the edge of the cellular membrane is responsible for cellular motility in complex eukaryotic cells
However, stop codons are recognized by release factors, not tRNA molecules. Therefore, the last tRNA brought into the ribosome binds the codon directly ______ of the stop codon
However, stop codons are recognized by release factors, not tRNA molecules. Therefore, the last tRNA brought into the ribosome binds the codon directly upstream of the stop codon
mRNA read what direction
5–>3
The brain is the main consumer of ____ in the body.
The brain cells contain glucose transporters that are insulin _____
Brain cells are unable to use_____ for energy.
The brain is the main consumer of glucose in the body.
The brain cells contain glucose transporters that are insulin independent.
Brain cells are unable to use fatty acids for energy.
blood pressure in ___ does not change
capillaries
Cation exchange column
wall is neg charged
Kinases do not transfer inorganic phosphate to molecules. The phosphate must come from a ____
Kinases do not transfer inorganic phosphate to molecules. The phosphate must come from a high-energy nucleotide triphosphate such as ATP or GTP.
Like glucagon, the hormone __ increases blood glucose levels in individuals
Like glucagon, the hormone epinephrine increases blood glucose levels in individuals
non reducing sds page does what two things to a protein
Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) is a detergent that coats proteins with a negative charge and denatures proteins by disrupting noncovalent interactions.
During sympathetic response, blood flow to brain vs muscle?
muscles need lots of blood so vessels will vasodilate there
brain needs blood but not at that pressure so vessels will be moderated to maintain blood flow (i.e will not vasodilate)
RNA/DNA polymerase reads DNA in which direction?
3–>5
what mode of metabolism used at start vs sustained fasting
start: gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis
sustained: fatty acid oxidation and ketogenesis
adrenal medulla part of which branch of autonomic nervous system
sympathetic only
Transcription factors do what
make sure the right genes are expressed in the right cell at the right time in the right concentration
Lipoic acid is a co factor in which metabolic pathway
pyruvate to acetyl-coA
Rate limiting enzyme of PPP
Glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase
makes G6P into 6-Phosphoglucolactone
Apoptosis is induced when ____ is allowed to leave the mitochondria and enter the cytosol, where it activates ______.
cytochrome c
caspase
Energy source in translation
GTP
Test cross
Often called back crosses since they are used to determine the genotype of the parent based on the phenotype of its offspring
Organism with an unknown genotype is crossed with an organism known to be homozygous recessive
For dihybrid cross genes must be
unlinked
Recombination Frequency:
likelihood of two alleles being separated from each other during crossing over.
what must happen for evolution to occur
change in allele frequency
Differential Reproduction:
The traits passed on by the more successful organisms will become wide-spread
Adaptive Radiation:
rapid rise of a number of different species from a common ancestor.
Where to ketones go
brain, muscle and renal cortex NOT liver
• Nervous tissue, kidney tubules, intestinal mucosa, RBCs, Pancreatic -cells have a glucose uptake that is not affected by_____
• Nervous tissue, kidney tubules, intestinal mucosa, RBCs, Pancreatic B-cells
Smooth muscle has which cell junction
gap
cardiac muscle has what cell junctions
desmosomes and gap
What hormone is known as prolactin inhibiting factor PIF
Dopamine
oxytocin feedback loop
positive
Which cells make calcitonin
C cells or parafollicular cells
High temp does what to hemoglobin oxygen affinity
decreases it
Negative selection
Negative Selection: B or T-cells that react to self-antigens are eliminated before they leave the bone marrow.
Enteropeptidase made where and does what
Enteropeptidase, which is produced in the duodenum, activates other peptidases like trypsinogen to trypsin
White fibers are
fast twitch
less mitochondria
Ghrelin secreted by _____, obese ppl have ____ stores of energy thus need less ghrelin
Ghrelin secreted by stomach, obese ppl have more stores of energy thus need less ghrelin
When choosing an antigen for vaccine production, there are two aspects to consider: ____
immunogenicity and toxicity.
RT-PCR is a molecular technique that measures
mRNA levels of specific protein.
GABA does what
inhibitory, causes cl- to enter cell
The number of different possible gametes that can be formed by diploid organisms as a result of independent assortment of chromosomes during meiosis can be calculated using the formula
2n where n is the haploid number of chromosomes.
Synthesis of antibody proteins in eukaryotic cells is associated with what organelle?
Rough ER
The inorganic component of bone consists of
calcium phosphate similar to hydroxyapatite (Ca10[PO4]6[OH]2), so it would be expected to contain calcium, phosphate and hydroxyl groups.
does necrosis or apoptosis damage nearby cells?
nec mf crosis
Arg or Lys more basic
Arg,,,,,resonance?
Specific activity is a measure of
amount of enzyme per mg of total protein
This provides a measure of the purity of an enzymatic mixture
Cytosine to uracil, what changes occur to its structure
deamination of cytosine, the amine group of cytosine is replaced with a carbonyl group, resulting in the structure of uracil.
