Basic organic chemistry Flashcards
what is oxidation
h
what is reduction
j
Whats the difference between substrate level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation?
in substrate energy is realeased directly from substrate to ADP, in oxidative phosphorylation a series of oxidation-reduction reactions in which coenzymes carry electrons to an electron transport chain these electrons then are transferred to oxygen in which ATP is generated
anabolism
chemical reactions that combine simple molecules and monmers to form the body’s complex structural and functional components
metabolism
the chemical reaction that occur in the body
What is the overall equation for aerobic cellular respiration?
the process in which cells break down glucose to carbon dioxide and water in order to extract metabolic energy
exergonic
overall catabolic (decomposition) reactions are
catabolism
chemical reactions that break down complex organic molecules into simple ones
catabolic
an important set of ___________________catabolic reactions occur in glycolysis, krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain
What is the overall reaction of the citric acid cycle?
Acetyl CoA enters the citric acid cycle or Kreb cycle, carbon dioxide is generated, For each acetyl CoA 1 GTP is converted to ATP, NADH and FADH2 go to the electron transport chain
catabolism
they produce more energy than they consume, releasing the chemical energy stored in organic molecules
oxidation
the result is a decrease in the potential energy of the atom or molecue
oxidation
the removal of electrons from an atom or moleucle
Which stage of cellular respiration makes the most ATP?
Aerobic
dehydrogenation
because most biological oxidation reactions involve the loss of hydrogen atoms they are called
coenzyme
when a substance is oxidized the liberated hydrogen atoms do not remain free in the cell but are transferred immediatley by______________to antoher compound
How many ATPs are made in aerobic cellular respiration?
36-38
reduction
it is the addition of electrons to a molecule
reduction
an increase in the potential energy of the molecule is a result of
reduction
the conversion of pyruvic acid into lactic acid is an example of
What is the function of fermentation?
To produce alcohol or making dairy
oxidation
this is a result of a decrease in the potential energy of an atom or molecule
oxidation
removal of electrons
hydrogen carriers
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAPP+), and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) are examples of
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)
a coenzyme present in most living cells and derived from the B vitamin nicotinic acid
reduction
addition of electrons
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+)
a coenzyme similar to NAD and present in most living cells but serves as a reductant in different metabolic processes
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)
serves as a reductant in various metabolic processes
clavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
a coenzyme that is a derivative of riboflavin and functions in certain oxidation-reduction reaction in the body
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+)
has an extra phosphate group
substrate-level phosphorylation
directly to ADP in human cells this process occurs in the cytosol
substrate-level phosphorylation
generates ATP by transferring a high energy phosphate group from an intermediate phosphorylated metabolic compound
oxidative phosphorylation
this process occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane of cells
oxidative phosphorylation
removes electrons from organic compounds and passes them through a series of electron acceptors, called electron transport chain to molecules of oxygen.
ways to generate ATP
substrate-level phosphorylation, oxidative phosphorylation, and photophosphorylation are examples of
photophosphorylation
occurs only in chlorophyll containing plant cells or in certain bacteria that contain bacteria that contain other light absorbing pigments
glycolysis
reaction does not require oxygen (anaerobic cellular respiration)
glycolysis
conversion of glucose into pyruvic acid results in production of some ATP.
4 or 6 ATP’s (oxidative phosphorylation in electron transport chain)
production of 2 NADH + H results in
2 ATP’s (substrate level phosphorylation)
oxidation of one glucose molecule to two pyruvic acid molecules produce
formation of acetyl coenzyme A
a transition step that prepares pyruvic acid for entrance into the krebs cycle
krebs cycle
named from a biochemist
krebs cycle
also known as citric acid cycle
oxygen
the fate of pyruvic acid produced during glycolysis depends on the availability
krebs cycle
reaction occurs in the matrix of mitochondria and consist of a series of oxidation-reductions and decarboxylation reactions that release CO2
ATP
glycolysis the krebs cycle and especially the electron transport change provide all the ___________________for cellular activities
krebs cycle
the oxidation-reduction reactions transfer chemical energy, in the form of electrons to two coenzymes NAD+ and FAD
electron transport chain reactions
series of electron carriers, integral membrane proteins in the inner mitochondrial membrane
krebs cycle and electron transport chain
require oxygen to produce ATP and are collectively known as aerobic cellular respiration
electron transport chain reactions
each carrier in the chain is reduced as it picks up electrons and oxidized as it gives up electrons
2 ATP’s
glycolysis: oxidation of one glucose molecule to two pyruvic acid molecules yield
6 ATP’s
formation of two molecules of acetyl coenzyme A: 2NADH + 2+ yields
4 or 6 ATP’s
glycolysis: production of 2 NADH + H yeilds
2 GTP’s that are converted to 2 ATP’s
oxidation of succinyl CoA to succinic acid yields
4 ATP’s
production of 2 FADH2 yields
18 ATP’s
production of 6 NADH + 6 H+ yields
oxygen
because the krebs cycle and electron transport chain are aerobic processes cells cannot carry on their activities for long if this is missing
36 or 38 ATP’s
ATP produced in cellular respiration from glycolysis to electron transport chain
chemiosmosis
process that links the passage of electron along the electron transport chain with the pumping of hydrogen ions
chemiosmosis
relates to the generation of ATP by the movement of hydrogen ions across a membrane during cellular respiration
chemiosmosis
the diffusion of ions across a selectively permeable membrane
proton pump
energy from NADH + H+ passes along the electron transport chain and is used to pump H+ from the matrix of the mitochondrion into the space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes. This mechanism is called
NADH + H+
energy from this is passed along the elecrton transport chain and is used to pump H+ from the matrix of the mitochondrion into the space between the inner and outer mitochondial membranes
chemiosmosis
ATP synthesis then occurs as hydrogen ions flow back into the mitochondrial matrix through a special type of H+ channel in the inner membrane. This is part of this process
chemiosmosis
a high concentration of H+ accumulates between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes during this process
glycogenesis
the synthesis of glycogen
glycogen
blood poduces
glycogenesis
stimulated by insulin
protein synthesis
stimulated by glucagon and epinephrine
glycogenolysis
the process of splitting glycogen into its glucose subunits
lipogenesis
breakdown of lipids
protein synthesis
protein breakdown
lipogenesis
occurs when individuals consume more calories than are needed to satisfy their ATP needs.
lipogenesis
stimulated by insulin
adipogenesis
production of fat, either fatty degeneration or fatty infiltration
lipogenesis
liver cells and adipose cells can synthesize lipids from glucose or amino acids through this process
lipogenesis
the normal deposition of fat or the conversion of carbohydrate or protein to fat
lipolysis
stimulated by epinephrine, norepinephrine and cortisol
lipolysis
the breakdown, splitting or decomposition of fat stored in cells
gluconeogenesis
the process by which glucose is formed from these noncarbohydrate sources
gluconeogenesis
stimulated by cortisol and glucagon
4 hours
a typical meal takes about how many hours for complete reabsorption
absorptive
during this state ingested nutrients are entering the blodd steam and glucose is readily availabe for ATP production
postabsorptive
absorption of nutrients from the GI tract is complete and energy needs must be met by fuels already in the body
12 hours
given three meals a day the absorption state exist in about
postabsorptive
assuming no in between snaks the other 12 hours typically late morning, late afernon and most of the night are spent in this state
postabsorptive
during fasting and starvation many body cells turn to ketone bodies for ATP production during this state
postabsorptive
many hormones regulate metabolism in this state
10
how many essential vitamins
20
how many amino acids are there
essential amino acids
you must include these in your diet
essential amino acids
these must be present in the diet because they cannot be synthesized in the body in adequate amounts
non-essential amino acids
can be synthesized by body cells
essential amino acids
humans are unable to synthesize eight of these
transamination
the transfer of an amino group from an amino acid to pyruvic acid or to an acid in the krebs sycle
non-essential amino acids
are formed by transamination
water soluble vitamins
B complex and vitamin C are examples of
protein synthesis
once the appropriate essential and non essential amino acids are present in cells________________occurs rapidly.
fat soluble vitamins
A, D, E, and K are examples of
water soluble vitamins
not readily stored in body
water soluble vitamins
excreeted in urine when there is excess
basal metabolic rate
basal metabolism of an animal
fat soluble vitamins
absorbed with fat in diet
basal metabolic rate
the minimum amount of energy (expressed in number of calories) our body needs to stay alive at rest
basal metabolic rate
the mninimal rate of energy expenditure compatible with life
conduction
heat exchange that occurs between molecules of two materials that are of different temp
basal metabolic rate
T3 and T4 control
radiating
your body loses heat by____________more infrared waves than it absorbs from cooler objects.
radiation
the trasfer of heat in the form of infrared rays between a warmer object and a cooler one without physical contact.
radiation
if surrounding objects are warmer than you are youabsorb more heat than you lose by evaporation
58 cal /ml
every milliliter of evaportating water takes with it a great deal of heat about
evaporation
the conversion of a liquid to a vapor
700ml
amount of water loss through evaporation per day
evaporation
under typical resing conditions about 22% of heat loss occurs through
400ml
amount of water loss from the skin surface
300ml
amount of water loss through exhaled air
coenzyme Q
shuttles electron to second pump
FMN
oxidized as it passes electrons to the iron sulfur center
heat
a form of energy that can be measured as temperature
calorie
temp. of 1 gram of water
shivering
the resulting contraction in the antagonist stretches muscle spindles in the agonist, and it too develops a stretch reflex. This repetative cycle is called
temperature
expressed in units called calories
oxidation
removal of electrons or hydrogen
generation of ATP
substrate level phosphorylation, oxidative phosphorylation, photophosphorylation are example of
reduction
addition of electrons or hydrogen
Glu T4
transporters for most cells increases with insulin
facilitated diffusion
glucose movement into cells by
glucose
this gets phosphorylated when it enter cells and then it can’t leave
Glu T
for neurons and liver cells always allows entry
glycolysis
occurs in the cytoplasm and in anaerobic
36 to 38 ATP
aerobic respiration yeild
vitamin B2 and riboflavin
FMN, flavin mononucleotide from
mitochondria
formation of pyruvic acid to acetyl CoA and krebs andelectron transport chain occur in
iron sulfur center
found in center of a protein
cytochromes
proteins with heme
electron carrier
FMN, cytochromes, iron sulfur centers, copper atoms and ubiquinones are examples of
4
how many molecules of ATP can you potentially get by SLP
chemiosmosis
process that links the passage of electrons along the electron transport chain with the pumping o hydrogen ions
insulin
facilltated diffusion of glucose into cells stimulating hormone is
32 or 34
how many molecules of ATP can you potentially get by OP
insulin
glycogenesis stimulating hormone is
insulin
active transport of amino acids into cells the stimulating hormone is
glycogenolysis
glucagon and epinephrine stimulate
protein synthesis
insulin, thyroid hormones, and insulin-like growth factors are stimulating factors for
protein breakdown
cortisol stimulates
lipolysis
epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol, insulinlike growth factors, thyroid hormones stimulate
gluconeogenesis
glucagon and cortisol stimulate
What are oxidation-reduction reactions?
how cells transfer energy from one compound to another
What role do co-enzymes play in cellular respiration?
Coenzymes carry energy from broken chemical bond of the substrate to the formation of the high energy bond of ATP, act as mobile electron carriers, transport electrons to the electron transport chain where most of the ATP is made
What is the overall reaction of glycolysis?
Sugar splitting reaction
What is the overall reaction of the bridging step?
Pyruvic acid is converted in to acetyl CoA carbon dioxide is generated Electrons pick up NAD+ and convert it to NADH, NADH will go to the electron transport chain
Where does each step of cellular respiration occur?
Cytosol
What is the electron transport chain? What is terminal electron acceptor?
A series of electron carriers bound to a membrane
Explain how ATP is made by chemiosmosis in mitochondrion?
Energy released in the electron transport chain is used to pump H+ across the membrane from the matrix into the intermemebrane space
How many ATPs are made in anaerobic respiration?
2
What is the difference between alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation?
Alcohol performed by fermetative yeasts, Lactic performed by bacteria
How are proteins catabolized? What is the major nitrogen-containing waste that is made?
Amino groups are removed from amino acids, they combine with H+ to form NH3, which is then converted into urea by liver enzymes, Urea
How are fats and oils catabolized? What is B-Oxidation?
Fats are catabolized into monoglycerides and fatty acids, then chopped into acetyl units, B-oxidation is a short chain of fatty acids that occurs in mitochondria, and in long chain fatty acids in peroxisomes
What is nitrogen fixation? Why are root nodules important in the nitrogen?
Process of converting atmospheric N2 into ammonia, Root nodules of legume plants
