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Basic Macromolecules Flashcards

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1
Q

What are 3 other names for biomolecules?

A

macromolecules, organic molecules, polymer

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2
Q

What are common elements that make up macromolecules?

A

C, H, O, N, S, P

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3
Q

Monomers
* How are they formed?
* What type of reaction to form them (catabolic vs anabolic)?
* is it endergonic or exergonic?
* What type of bonds are between them?

A
  • hydrolysis of polymers (through addition of a water mlc)
  • catabolic rxn
  • EXergonic (releases energy)
  • covalent bonds
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4
Q

Polymers
* How are they formed?
* What type of reaction to form them (catabolic vs anabolic)?
* is it endergonic or exergonic?

A
  • monomers covalently bond together via dehydration/ condensation rxn (through removal of water mlc)
  • anabolic rxn (building)
  • ENdergonic (requires energy to build)
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5
Q

What are examples of polymers?

A
  • proteins aka polypeptides
  • polysaccharides (carbs)
  • lipids (fats, oils, phospholipids, steroids, waxes)
  • nucleic acids (DNA, RNA, ATP)
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6
Q

What are proteins (most general definition)

A

AA joined together by peptide bonds

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7
Q

What is the monomer of proteins? What are the parts of that monomer?

A

AA
* central alpha carbon with 4 valence electrons that can make 4 covalent bonds
* H
* R group aka side chain that dictates the chemical properties of the AA [can be hydrophobic or hydrophilic)
* amino group -NH2 (removed by liver deaminases during protein metabolism)
* carboxyl group- COOH

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8
Q

How many unique amino acids are there?

A

20

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9
Q

What is the general function of proteins (3)?

A
  • transport carrier (ie. channels)
  • cell signaling (receptors)
  • cell structure
    also, ID the cell (glycoproteins and lipoproteins)
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10
Q

What are the 3 general examples of proteins?

A
  • structural (hydrophobic)
  • globular (hydrophilic)
  • cell membrane
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11
Q

Give examples of structural proteins

A
  • kertain (found in hair, nails, and epidermis of the skin - superficial skin)
  • collagen (found in dermis of the skin and the organic portion of the bone matrix for resilience and flexibility of bone)

these are hydrophobic

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12
Q

Give examples of globular proteins

A
  • enzymes
  • Hb (carrying oxygen in RBC)
  • antibodies (made by plasma B cells)
  • hormones
  • receptors
  • motor proteins

these are hydrophilic

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13
Q

Give examples of cell membrane proteins

A
  • channels (for transport)
  • receptors (for cell signaling)
  • glycoproteins (and lipoproteins) (for ID’ing the cell, ie antigens that are also there to start immune response)
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14
Q

Describe enzymes

A
  • catalyze biochemical reactions through speeding up rxns by lowering the activation energy
  • NOT consumed by the reaction
  • catalyze endergonic (require energy) and exergonic (releases energy) reactions
  • energy is supplied and released in the form of ATP
  • lock and key with enyzme active site and substrate
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15
Q

What are 4 factors that influence enzyme activity/ rate of rxn

A
  • temp- the higher temp = increases enzyme activity BUT too hot can denature the protein, so there IS an optimal temp range for enzyme function
  • pH - there is an optimal pH for every enzyme to work
  • salt (ions) - disrupts the protein’s ionic bonds, so that is why put salt in fruits to disrupt bacterial protein’s ionic bonds = INHIBITS bacterial growth
  • number of enzymes- more enzymes = faster the reaction
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16
Q

What are some food examples of proteins?

A

egg whites, chicken

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17
Q

What is the monomer of enzymes?

A

AA

since most enzymes are proteins

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18
Q

Describe carbs (think about the flow chart)

A

in ipad

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19
Q

Complex carbs are broken down into what?

A

mostly glucose

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20
Q

What are the simple carbs (2 general categories)? What are 2 other names for it?

A
  • monosaccharides and disaccharides
  • sugars and simple sugars
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21
Q

What are the exact monosaccharides? Describe in what type of food they are found

A
  • glucose (C6H12O6)- MOST important form of cellular fuel esp to brain and nervous system (found in fruits and veggies, honey, corn syrup)
  • fructose- SWEETEST (so is most ‘bad’/ dangerous bc after liver uses as much as it can to make ATP, IMMEDIATELY it is stored as fat, so if high fructose diet can lead to NAFLD) (found in fruits and veggies, honey, high fructose corn syrup in soda, candy, and highly processed foods)
  • galactose - monosaccharide form is rarely present in food

a simple sugar

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22
Q

What is the monomer of carbohydrates? What are specific examples?

A

monosaccharide (ratio of C:H:O is CnH2nOn) and is mostly C6H12O6
* glucose, fructose, galactose

a simple sugar aka sugar and simple carb

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23
Q

What are the 2 categories that carbs can be broken down into? What are other ways to call those categories?

A
  • simple carbs aka sugars aka simple sugars
  • complex carbs aka polysaccharides
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24
Q

What are the polymers of carbs?

A
  • disaccharides (a simple sugar)
  • polysaccharides (a complex sugar)
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25
Q

What are the exact disaccharides? What food items contain these?

A
  • maltose - glucose + glucose (not found appreciably in foods)
  • sucrose (table sugar) - glucose + fructose (found in maple syrup, honey)
  • lactose (milk sugar)- glucose + galactose (found in dairy products of milk, yogurt, and cheese)

a simple sugar

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26
Q

What breaks down lactose? What happens when you don’t have this?

A
  • lactase into glucose and galactose
  • lactose intolerance (sx of diarrhea, etc)
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27
Q

What are all complex carbs monomers?

A

glucose BUT have diff structure and types of bonds

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28
Q

What are the exact complex carbs? Describe them. What types of food are they found in?

A
  • starches- energy storage form of carbs in PLANTS (linear = amylose, branched = amylopectin) (found in potatoes; grains like bread, rice, pasta; legumes like soybeans, lentils, pinto beans, kidney beans; and nuts)
  • glycogen- energy storage form of carbs in ANIMALS (highly branched) - NOT found in food, but is made through glycogenesis from glucose in the liver and skeletal muscle after eating a meal
  • fiber - protection and structure- cellulose (linear) is in the plant cell wall for rigidity; chitin in the exoskeleton of crustaceans (ie. crawfish) and insects and in the fungi cell wall [these are INsoluble and INdigestable through human enzymes = great for constipation to increase weight and size and soften stool to make it easier to poop out] [ herbivores CAN digest cellulose] (is found in whole grains ie. wheat, seeds, nuts, apples, broccoli, legumes)
29
Q

What breaks down amylose? Where is that substance found (2)?

A
  • amylase breaks down the starch (amylose) into simple sugars (maltose, a disaccharide)
  • found in saliva and pancreatic digestive juices –> glucose absorbed into small intestines capillaries and travels to hepatic portal vein to the liver to be processed.

this is a starch

30
Q

What is the IV formulation of glucose given in the hospital?

A

dextrose

31
Q

What is the general function of carbs?

A
  • PRIMARY SOURCE of cellular energy/ fuel (BUT need insulin to work to bring glucose from the blood to inside the cells so that ATP can actually be made)
  • energy storage in liver and skeletal muscle as glycogen through glycogenesis with glucose (stored as starch in plants)
  • quick energy
32
Q

What type of bonds in carbs makes it great to be used to make ATP?

A

C-H covalent bonds- have alot of energy so when they are broken down (through cellular respiration), the energy can be extracted to make ATP
* first: glycolysis - in cytoplasm, requires NO oxygen
* then: if O2 NOT present –> anaerobic respiration in the cytoplasm= fermentation to make lactic acid ; if O2 IS present –> aerobic respiration in cytoplasm= citric acid/ TCA/ Kreb cycle –> ETC –> oxidative phosphorylation

33
Q

How is glucose stored?

A
  • in animals: as glycogen in the liver and skeletal muscle through glycogenesis after a meal; after all glucose stored as glycogen, any excess can be stored as lipids
  • in plants: as starch
34
Q

What are the 3 general examples of polymers of carbs?

A
  • structural carbs
  • energy storage
  • cell recognition
35
Q

What are the structural carbs

A
  • cell wall and exoskeleton
  • polysaccharides : fiber - cellulose in the plant cell wall that contributes to rigidity; chitin in the exoskeleton of crustaceans (ie. crawfish) and insects and the cell wall of fungi [INdigestible and INsoluble in humans and herbivores CAN digest cellulose]
  • peptidoglycan- in cell wall of bacteria [ thin = gram - bacteria, so stains pink; thic = gram + bacteria , so stains purple]
36
Q

What is the thickeness of peptidoglycan found in the cell wall of bacteria? What color do they stain?

A
  • gram - bacteria = thin peptidoglycan layer; stains pink
  • gram + bacteria = thic peptidoglycan layer; stains purple
37
Q

What are the energy storage mlcs of carbs?

A

Disaccharides:
* maltose, sucrose, lactose

Polysaccharides:
* starch- energy storage of carbs in PLANTS - linear - amylose [amylase breaks it down]; branched - amylopectin
* glycogen- energy storage of carbs in ANIMALS - highly branched (formed from glucose through glycogenesis in the liver and skeletal muscle)

38
Q

What are the recognition carb mlcs (2)?

A

glycoproteins and glycolipids

39
Q

What are some food items rich in carbs

A
  • starch: potatoes, bread, rice, pasta
  • simple sugars: think fruits
40
Q

Lipids vs. Carbs (2)

A
  • both have C, H, O as main elements BUT carbs have it in the 1:2:1 ratio and lipids have diff ratios
  • carbs are for quick energy while lipids are for long term energy (more C-H nonpolar covalent bonds means it can do MORE energy storage than carbs)
41
Q

Lipids are in general what type of mlc (think polarity, etc) (3)?

A

NONpolar, hydroPHOBIC, water INsoluble

42
Q

What are the monomers of lipids?

A

NO real monomers, but if had to say it is glycerol + fatty acids

43
Q

Explain polarity of glycerol of lipids (3)

A

polar, hydroPHILIC, water SOLuble

44
Q

Explain the polarity of the fatty acid portion of lipids (3)

A

NON-polar, hydroPHOBIC, water INsoluble

45
Q

What are the 2 different types of fatty acids?

A
  • saturated: completely saturated with H’s, so single bonds b/w carbons = stable for ATP production and long term storage
  • unsaturated: 1 or more double bonds b/w carbons = unstable and easily broken, contributes to membrane fluidity and cell signaling (monounsaturated = olives and avocadoes; polyunsaturated = omega 3, fish)
46
Q

What is lipogenesis? What is a hormone that can stimulate this?

A
  • using fatty acids and glycerol to make triglycerides
  • insulin
47
Q

What is lipolysis? What hormones can stimulate this?

A
  • breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol
  • cortisol, glucagon, catecholamines (adrenaline, dopamine), thyroxine
48
Q

What is ketogenesis? What organ does this?

A
  • breakdown of fatty acids into ketones, which are short C chains that can be subbed for glucose
  • liver
49
Q

What nutrients can be used to generate ATP (specifically out of the lipids)?

A
  • fatty acids and ketones can go through citric acids cycle, ETC, and oxidative phosphorylation
50
Q

What is the general function of lipids?

A

long term energy storage, energy, and structure
* more nonpolar C-H bonds allows for even more energy storage then carbs

51
Q

What are 5 examples of polymers of lipids?

A
  • fats (ie. triglycerides)
  • oils
  • phospholipids
  • steroids (cholesterol and steroid hormones)
  • waxes
52
Q

What are fats? What is that structure made of? What is the function of this specific fat?

A
  • triglycerides are an example, which contains 1 glycerol head (polar, hydrophilic, water soluble) + 3 fatty acids tails (NON-polar, hydrophobic, water INsoluble
  • triglycerides are the energy storage form of lipids - in adipose tissue and the liver.

lipid

53
Q

What is the energy storage form of lipids?

A

triglycerides (in adipose tissue and liver)

a fat –> a lipid

54
Q

What is the energy storage form of carbs?

A
  • starch in PLANTS
  • glycogen in ANIMALS
55
Q

Where are phospholipids found? What are the components?

A
  • cell/ plasma membrane to contribute to their selective permeability
  • polar head- 1 glycerol + phosphate (-) + NONpolar fatty acid tails (2)

lipid

56
Q

What is the general steroid structure? What are general examples of steroids?

A
  • 4 hydrocarbon rings
  • cholesterol and steroid hormones
57
Q

What is cholesterol important for (3)?

A
  • part of the cell membrane to decrease membrane permeability and stabilize the membrane with minor temp flucturations
  • precursor for ALL steroid hormones (corticosteroids and sex hormones and thyroxine and vit D)
  • major component of bile, which aids in lipid digestion [ emulsify fats into fat soluble drop, micelle, which is water soluble, so that pancreatic lipases can turn it into fatty acids and glycerol.

lipid, specifically a steroid

58
Q

What are the steroid hormones?

A
  • corticosteroids (steroid hormones made in the adrenal cortex) : cortisol - a gluccocorticoid; aldoesterone- a mineralocorticoid; testosterone
  • sex hormones : estrogen (females: made in ovarian follicles granulosa cells; males: made in testis sertoli cells); progesterone aka pregnancy hormone (made in empty follicle, corpus luteum, in the ovaries); testosterone- an androgen- (males: testis Leydig cells; females: adrenal cortex and ovarian follicle thecal cells, stimulated by LH)
  • thyroxine
  • Vit D : when sun UV light hits the epidermis of the skin, cholesterol turns into inactive Vit D [remember active vit D, calcitrol, is made in the kidneys]

lipids

59
Q

What are the purpose of waxes?

A

lipids found in feathers and furs to keep animals dry; also found on leaves of plants

60
Q

What are examples of food rich in lipids?

A

animal fat, dairy, good fats (nuts, fish, oils)

61
Q

What is the monomer of nucleic acids?

A

nucleotides (phosphate, which is what makes DNA -, pentose sugar, nitrogenous base)
* sugar: deoxyribose in DNA; ribose in RNA
* nitrogenous bases: A, T, C, G (U instead of T for RNA)

62
Q

What are the polymers of nucleic acids (3)?

A
  • DNA
  • RNA
  • ATP ( an RNA nucleotide)
63
Q

What is the function of DNA?

A

PERMANENTLY STORE genetic information

a nucleic acid

64
Q

What is the function of RNA? What are the different types?

A

transmission and utilization of genetic material through transcription and translation
* mRNA- transcript of DNA
* rRNA- part of ribosomes
* tRNA- carries AA to ribosomes to incorporate into proteins during translation

65
Q

What is the function of ATP

A

storage form of usable energy from food

66
Q

Compare DNA and RNA (rlly just based on location and function bc should know the rest)

A
  • DNA is found in the nucleus and RNA is found in the cytoplasm
  • DNA PERMANENTLY STORES genetic material while RNA is dealing with transcription and translation

others that I should know:
* sugar : deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA
* helix status: double in DNA and single in RNA
* nitrogenous bases: ACTG in DNA and U instead of T in RNA

67
Q

What is metabolism?

A

converting food into usable energy, ATP

68
Q

What are the 2 part so metabolism?

A
  • catabolic pathway- breaking down
  • anabolic pathway- building things
69
Q

What is an example of a catabolic pathway part of cellular metabolism?

A
  • cellular respiration- glycolysis –> citric acid cycle –> ETC –> oxidative phosphorylation to generate ATP
  • O2 + C6H12O6 –> ATP + H2O (from oxidative phosphorylation) + CO2 (from citric acid cycle0

Biology (12 decks)

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