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Fundamentals - Y1 > Basic Biology > Flashcards

Basic Biology Flashcards

Enzymology, Cell Organelles, Membrane Structures and Components, Biomolecules, Nutrients and Vitamins, Meiosis, Cell Proliferation and Mitosis, Cell Specification.

1
Q

What is metabolism and what is the purpose of it?

A

Chemical reactions that occur in a living organism. The purpose is to produce energy, biosynthesis and excretion.

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2
Q

Define anabolism.

A

Synthesis of larger molecules from smaller ones (requires energy).

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3
Q

Define catabolism.

A

Synthesis of smaller molecules from larger ones (releases energy).

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4
Q

What are the 5 types of electron carriers?

A 
Flavoproteins (NADH/NAD+)
Cytochromes (haeme in haemoglobin)
Copper atoms in mitochondrial membrane
Uniquinane/Co-enzyme Q
Iron-sulfur proteins (Fe3+/Fe2+)
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5
Q

Purpose of ATP.

A

Used as an energy intermediate. Produces 7.3kJ of free energy when hydrolysed.

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6
Q

Purpose of Enzymes.

A

Biological catalysts.

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7
Q

6 Types of Enzymes.

A 
Transferase
Ligase
Oxidoreductase
Isomerase
Hydrolase 
Lysases
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8
Q

Characteristics of Enzymes.

A
  • Globular Proteins
  • Control metabolic reactions rate
  • Lower activation energy
  • Not consumed (re-usable)
  • Substrate specific
  • Shape of active site determines substrate
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9
Q

Define substrate.

A

The reactant.

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10
Q

Define active site

A

Region where substrate binds + undergoes chemical reactions.

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11
Q

Define co-factor.

A

Inorganic ions (Ca2+) which may be charged during the reaction.

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12
Q

Define co-enzyme.

A

Organic non-protein molecule (NAD+) that are a subset of co-factors.

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13
Q

Define prosthetic group.

A

A co-factor permanently attached to an enzyme.

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14
Q

Define apoenzyme.

A

Enzyme with a co-factor removed (inactive catalytically).

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15
Q

Define haloenzyme.

A

Enzyme with co-factor attached.

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16
Q

Describe the Lock-and-Key model.

A
  • Active site is rigid shape
  • Substrate needs to be matching shape
  • No change in the active site shape
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17
Q

Describe the Induced fit model.

A
  • Active site is flexible
  • Shape of enzyme, active site + substrate adjust (improves catalytically)
  • Greater range of substrate specificity
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18
Q

How does temperature effect enzyme activity.

A

Increases until reach optimum temperature where the enzyme begins to denature causing a decrease in activity.

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19
Q

How does pH effect enzyme activity.

A

Enzymes need to be around optimum pH decreases otherwise -> Specific to each enzyme.

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20
Q

How does substrate concentration impact enzyme activity.

A

Maximum activity occurs when all enzymes are saturated so it will reach maximum reaction velocity.

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21
Q

How do competitive inhibitors effect enzyme activity.

A

They are a similar shape to substrate so they bind to the active site meaning substrate can no longer bind.

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22
Q

How do non-competitive inhibitors effect enzyme activity.

A

Different shape to substrate but bind to enzyme in a allosteric place which alters shape of the active site meaning substrate no longer complimentary.

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23
Q

Describe allosteric modulators.

A

Can be inhibitors or activators but are different shaped to the substrate and are involved in feedback inhibition (switches process off when not needed).

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24
Q

Importance of enzymes.

A

Can be:

  • Diagnostic markers of diseases
  • Biochemical estimations + detections
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25
Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells.
-> Bacteria and Archaea - Single-celled with DNA being circular - Lack organelles - DNA in nucleiod, no separation - Rigid cell walls - Functional structures in cytoplasm Have Pili or Fimbriae and some have flagella
26
Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells.
- > Animals and Plants - Single of multicellular - Contain organelles - which are specialised for their function - DNA organised into chromosomes in the nucleus - Nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm
27
Types of Cytosol organelles.
Mitochondria, Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, Lysosomes, Peroxisomes
28
Types of Inclusions.
Lipid droplets, Glycogen granules, Ribosomes
29
Types of Protein Fibres.
Cytoskeleton, Centrioles, Cilia, Flagella
30
Describe Sub-Cellular Fractionation.
- Disruption of plasma membrane - Ultracentrifugation - Cell compartments separate based on size and density - Further density-gradient centrifugation can separate individual components from each fraction.
31
Describe Cell Membrane.
``` Phospholipid bilayer Physical isolation Regulation of exchange Communication Structural support ```
32
Describe Cytoplasm.
Semi-fluid material surrounding organelles Site of many cellular activities Offers cell support Medium for internal cellular transport
33
Describe Nucleus.
Cells control centre Regulates all cellular activity Contains DNA (hereditary information) Consists of nucleoplasm bounded by nuclear envelope (Two membranes - Inner/Outer/Pores) Nucleolus - Transcribes and assembles rRNA Chromatin - DNA looped around histone proteins Nuclear pores - Allows communication between nucleus and cytosol, Ions + small molecules pass freely, Allows cell to restrict DNA to nucles
34
Describe Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER).
A system of folded, interconnected membrane vesicles. - Large flattened sac-like structures (cisternae) - Internal space = Lumen
35
Describe Smooth ER.
No ribosomes | Biosynthetic + Biotransformational activities (Lipids/Steroids/Steroidal hormones) - in liver/kidney
36
Describe Rough ER.
Ribosomes on cytosolic side | Site of protein synthesis -> Protein transported to lumen for modification
37
Describe Golgi Apparatus.
Large sac-like membrane vesicles, associated vesicles + tubules Processing station - Package + distribute cell products (for internal/external use) - Vesicles budding off ER travel and are accepted by Golgi - Vesicles budding off Golgi travel to other organelles/cell surface
38
Describe Vesicles.
Similar membrane to plasma membrane | Internal conditions different to cytosolic environment
39
Describe Vacuoles.
Component for storage + transport (often temporarily) | Largest in plants
40
Describe Lysosomes.
Membrane bound vesicles used in intra/extracellular digestion of biomolecules + old cells. Characteristics: 0.5-1um, Contain lysozymes, Lumen has low pH, Acid hydrolases (active at low pHs). Special carbohydrate to prevent self-destruction Larger amount in white blood cells
41
Describe Peroxisomes.
Membrane bound from ER Characteristics: 0.1-1um, Contain oxidase + catalase, Detoxify + decompose harmful substances Lots in the liver
42
Describe Vesicles Transport.
Move molecules in a cell | Recognise + fuse with target membranes
43
Describe Secretary Vesicles.
Contains materials to be excreted from the cell - Removal of waste - Release chemical signs (hormones) Vesicle fusion (Full/Kiss-and-run - reusable)
44
Describe Mitochondria.
Site of aerobic respiration + energy production Double membrane: - Inner = Folded forming cristae - Area within cristae = matrix - Gap = Inter-membrane space Membrane in inter-membrane space allow for cell death (apoptosis) Distribution in cells + tissue depend on function (muscles = high) Matrix - Contains enzymes, ribosomes, granules, DNA, machinery to form ATP
45
Describe Cytoskeleton.
``` 3D structure that fills the cytoplasm Roles: - Cell Movement - Cytokinesis (cell division) - Organisation of organelles ``` Composed of: - Microfilaments = 3-6nm, threadlike, mainly actin, carry out movement - Microtubules = 20-25nm, cylindrical tubes, a + B tublin subunits, determine cell shape, used for flagella + cilia movement - Intermediate filaments = 10nm, overlapping + twisted conformation, provide tensile strength, anchor organelle + nucleus, form junctions between cells + matrix
46
Describe the Structure of the Cell Membrane Lipids.
Most membrane lipids are amphipathic Many are phospholipids (glycerophospholipids/sphingolipids) Sterols have stabilising roles Proteins are associated to surface/span membrane
47
Describe Glycerophospholipids.
Glycerol as polar head Attached to a phosphate ion and an R-group Helps to fine tune membrane properties
48
Describe the two types of Sphingolipids.
``` Sphingomyelin = Phosphocoline head group Glycosphingolipids = Mono/oligo-saccharide head group ```
49
Explain the Main Constituents of a Cell Membrane.
``` Phospholipids = Membrane formation Glycolipids = Antigen recognition Sterols = Membrane fluidity Proteins = Signalling ```
50
State the 7 types of Amphipathic Phospholipids.
``` Phosphatidylcholine (PC) Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) Phosphatidylglycerol (PG) Phosphatidylinositol (PI) Phosphatidylserine (PS) Diphosphatidylglycerol (DPG) Sphingomyelin (SP) - Animals ```
51
State the 2 types of Gylcolipids.
Cerebrosides (mono) | Gangliosides (oligo - inc sialic acid -ve charged)
52
State the type of Sterol in Humans and its Properties.
Cholesterol Properties - Amphipathic - Intercalates into bilayer - Influences membrane fluidity + decrease ion permeability + small polar molecules
53
Describe the Phospholipid Bilayer.
Hydrophobic core stabilised by Van Der Waals forces Hydrophilic head groups interact by ionic interaction Movement between layers stabilised by flippases Only functions in fluid state Lateral diffusion is fast/Transverse is slow At low temperatures it solidifies = gel phase
54
Explain the Factors that Affecting Membrane Fluidity.
Longer fatty acid chains - Reduce Fluidity -> Increased Van Der Waals forces Unsaturated fatty acid chains - Increased Fluidity -> Chains no longer linear - Decreased forces - Desaturate enzymes re-tailor chain Sterols in fluid - Decrease Fluidity -> Restrict movement of compounds Sterols in gel phase - Increase Fluidity -> Facilitate movement of other membrane compounds
55
State the 3 Membrane Proteins.
Integral Lipid-Anchored Peripheral
56
Explain the Integral Membrane Proteins.
``` Amphipathic Span the membrane (integral polytopic) Partially embedded (integral monotopic) ```
57
Explain the Peripheral Membrane Proteins.
Lack hydrophobic regions Do not interact with fatty acid ends of membrane lipids Associated with membrane structure - Electrostatic attraction - Hydrogen bonding (to protein or polar head groups)
58
Explain the Lipid-Anchored Membrane Proteins.
Found in both membrane surfaces - Protein located on membrane surface Anchored via covalent bonds to lipid molecules within membrane - Fatty-acid anchored membrane proteins - Synthesised + attached to a lipid in membrane Isoprenylated membrane proteins - Synthesised + modified by addition of multiples of the isoprenylgroup
59
State the Functions of Membrane Proteins.
``` Transport ATP Production Biotransformations (metabolism) Receptors Cell-cell recognition ```
60
Explain Lipid Rafts.
Phospholipids + proteins distributed asymmetrically in membrane - Highly organised membrane structures - Thicker - Rich in cholesterol and sphingomyelin Accumulate molecules (ie transmembrane proteins, lipid-anchored proteins + glycoproteins)
61
State the Roles of the Cell Membrane.
``` Physical isolation Regulate exchange with environment Communication between cell + environment Structural support Cellular identification ```
62
Explain the 4 Transport Mechanisms.
Simple diffusion - High -> Low conc. gradient - Small + hydrophobic molecules (O2,CO2) Osmosis - Water diffusion High -> Low water potential Facilitated Diffusion - High -> Low conc. gradient - Require transport protein - Ions (K+,Na+), Monosaccharides, Amino Acids Active Transport - Low -> High conc. gradient - Ions, Glucose, Amino Acids - Requires energy (ATP, Electrochemical gradient)
63
State the Process that occur over a Mobile Membrane.
``` Endocytosis Exocytosis Pinocytosis Phagocytosis Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis Exocytosis ```
64
State the formula for Carbohydrates.
(CH2O)n
65
Describe the Functions of Carbohydrates.
Primary - Short-term immediate energy generation Secondary - Immediate-term energy storage (glycogen) Tertiary - Structural components (cellulose)
66
State the bond between Monosaccharides.
Glycosidic
67
State the Products Formed by Condensation Bonds between Monosaccharides.
Disaccharides (sucrose) Oligosaccharides (ABO glycolipids) Polysaccharides (cellulose)
68
Describe the difference between Alpha and Beta Glucose.
``` Alpha = OH bonds on same side on carbon 1 + 6 Beta = OH bonds on opposite sides on carbon 1 + 6 ```
69
State the main Functions of Lipids.
Energy Storage Heat/Insulation Structural components of cell membranes Communication
70
Describe the Characteristics of Lipids.
Non-Polar Not very soluble in water, Soluble in non-polar/weakly polar organic solvents Saturated = Single C-C bonds, linear appearance, solid at RTP Unsaturated = 1+ C=C bond, C=C gives distinct bend, reduces melting point liquid at RTP Carboxyl Head - Non-polar + Hydrophilic Fatty Acid Chain - Hydrophobic
71
Describe Triglycerides.
Glycerol + 3 Fatty Acid Chains Stored as cytoplasmic 'lipid droplets' Main storage for energy: Long term + high in energy
72
Describe Phospholipids.
Glycerol + 2 Fatty Acid Chains + Phosphorylated Alcohol
73
Describe Eicosenoids.
Consists of: Prostaglandins (PG's), Thromaxones (TX's), Prostacyclins (PGI's), Leukstrienes (LT's) Derived from arachidonic acid
74
Describe Isoprenoids - Steroids.
Built around 4-ringed hydrocarbon skeleton Cholesterol is the base of all steroid hormones - Glucocorticoids - Mineralocorticoids - Androgens - Oestrogens - Progesterones
75
Describe Isoprenoids - Sterols.
Cholesterol - Mammalian cell membranes - Precursor of steroid hormones + bile salts Ergosterol - Cell membrane component in fungi Phytosterol - Plant sterol (suggested cholesterol-lowering effect)
76
State the Roles of Proteins.
``` Enzymes Structural Motility Regulatory Transport Hormone Receptor Defensive Storage ```
77
State the Structure of Amino Acids.
NH2CHRCOOH
78
State the 4 Groups of Amino Acids.
Group I - Non-Polar Group II - Polar Group III - Acidic Group IV - Basic
79
State the Name of the Bond between Amino Acids.
Peptide bonds formed from condensation reactions. | Forms an N-C-C backbone
80
Describe the 4 Polypeptide Structures.
Primary: Amino acid sequence Secondary: H-bonds between polypeptide backbone at regular intervals forms a-helix (coils) and b-sheets (folds) Tertiary: Interaction between R-groups + backbone from ionic, disulphide bridges and H-bonds Quaternary: Interaction between 2+ polypeptide chains (Haemoglobin has 4)
81
Explain the Function of Nucleotides.
Allow living organisms to pass information to future generations and carries metabolic energy.
82
State the 2 types of Nucleotides.
Purines - Adenine + Guanine | Pyramidines - Thymine, Cytosine + Uracil
83
Describe Deoxyribose nucleoties (DNA).
Four nucleotides: A + T, C + G | Sugar = D-deoxyribose
84
Describe Ribose nucleotides (RNA).
Four nucleotides: A + U, C + G | Sugar = D-ribose
85
Explain the DNA Double Helix.
Base pairing between two complementary strands (5' to 3' vs 3' to 5' strands) which forms right handed helix with a sugar phosphate backbone.
86
Describe Meiosis in simple terms.
Gametes (haploid cells) fuse which allows organisms to reproduce, creating genetically different offspring to their parents.
87
Describe the 2 types of Reproduction.
Sexual - Combination of haploid sex cells (gametes) - Fertilisation forms zygote - Change in genetic information so genetic differences - Restores diploid number from gamete fusion Asexual - Via Mitosis ONLY - Genetically identical offspring
88
State all the Stages Involved in Meiosis.
``` DNA Replication Meiosis I Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I Meiosis II Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II ```
89
Describe Meiosis I.
Duplicated maternal + paternal homologous chromosomes pair up alongside each other -> Genetic recombination Line up at equator of meiotic spindle Homologous are pulled apart and separated into 2 daughter cells.
90
Describe Prophase I - Meiosis.
Chromosomes duplicated Chromosomes condense + become visible Synapsis + crossing over occurs -> Increases genetic variation
91
Describe Metaphase I - Meiosis.
Homologous chromosomes align at the metaphase plate | Centromeres of homologous chromosomes are oriented towards opposite poles.
92
Describe Anaphase I - Meiosis.
Mircotubules attaches to the kinetochores shorten Homologous chromosomes move to opposite cell poles Centromeres don't break (chromatids don't separate).
93
Describe Telophase I - Meiosis.
Spindle fibres disintegrate and cytokinesis occurs | Each daughter cell has half the number of chromosomes.
94
Explain the Importance of Genetic Variations.
Generates haploid cells genetically different from each other Produces individuals with novel genetic combinations - Can survive + reproduce in variable environments - Removes harmful mutations from a population.
95
Explain Proliferation.
``` The physical process of cell division Main Type in Eukaryotes = Mitosis Increases somatic cell number Occurs in most tissues Critical in maintaining homeostasis Begins in embryogenesis continues throughout lifespan ```
96
Describe the different Proliferate Abilities.
Unable to: Cardiac myocytes, Neurones Can resume proliferation from G0: Skin fibroblasts, Smooth muscles cells, Epithelial cells of internal organs Continual proliferation: Blood cells, Skin epithelial cells
97
Describe the Regulation of Cell Proliferation.
Environment - Nutrients, Temperature, pH, O2 Positive/Negative - Cell adhesion, Growth factors Intracellular - p53, Cytochrome C, Bcl proteins
98
Describe Mitosis in simple terms.
The copy of an existing cell to produce genetically identical cells usually for growth and repair.
99
Describe the Stages involved in Mitosis.
S-Phase: DNA Synthesis M-Phase: Nuclear division (mitosis) + Cytokinesis G1 Phase: Gap phase 1 S-Phase: Period of cell growth + proteins and organelles doubled G2 Phase: Gap phase 2 M-Phase: Cell divides into two
100
Explain the Importance of Gap Phases in Mitosis.
To grow and monitor internal + external conditions.
101
Describe G1 Phase - Mitosis.
Takes approx. 9.5 hours Ensures: Cell large enough to enter S-Phase
102
Describe G2 Phase - Mitosis.
``` Takes approx. 2.5 hours Ensures: Cell completely replicated Replication errors corrected Cell large enough to divide ```
103
Explain how Mitosis is Regulated.
Information from: Cell cycle events (nutrients, cell-density, growth factors) External environment: Cyclins, Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK) Regulatory proteins bind to CDKs causing phosphorylation and activation
104
Describe S Phase - Mitosis.
Chromosomes replicate New DNA synthesised -> Duplicate chromosome constructed Chromosome visible during division After replication: Each chromosome forms 2 identical chromatids Chromatids joined at the centromere
105
State the Stages of M-Phase - Mitosis.
``` Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase + Cytokinesis ```
106
Describe Prophase - Mitosis.
Chromosomes condense - Nuclear membrane and nucleoli disappear Outside nucleus - Mitotic spindle begins to form (centromeres, aster + microtubules) - Centromeres move away from each other
107
Describe Prometaphase - Mitosis.
Nuclear envelope forms | Microtubules attach to the chromatids at the kinetochores
108
Describe Metaphase - Mitosis.
Centromeres are at opposite poles Chromosomes line up at the metaphase pole All chromosomes are attached to each of the pole
109
Describe Anaphase - Mitosis.
Connection between chromatids at the centromeres is cleaved - Each chromatid is now a daughter chromosome Chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles as cell elongates
110
Describe Telophase + Cytokinesis - Mitosis.
``` Two daughter cell nuclei form - Nuclear envelope forms, cytoplasm divides Chromosomes become less dense Contractile ring assembles - Actin + Myosin filaments - Cytoplasms divided in 2 ```
111
State the Importance of Mitosis.
Regulates development - Maintains size, morphology + organ function - Involved in ageing, oncogenesis + regenerative medicine
112
Describe the effect of Abnormal Proliferation.
Uncontrolled cell division/death which is the cause of most metastasis -> cancer
113
Describe Cell Specialisation/Differentiation.
Cell changes from one type to another Usually results in a more specialised cell type Determines role of the cell
114
State the main types of Stem Cells.
Embryonic stem cells Adult stem cells Induced pluripotent stem cells
115
Describe Embryonic Stem Cells (Blastocysts).
Isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocysts Can differentiate into all specialised cell types Division results in 'self-renewal' Totipotent and Pluripotent
116
Describe Adult Stem Cells (Bone Marrow).
Found in various tissues - Obtained after birth - Large number in umbilical cord blood + bone marrow Act as repair systems Progenitor cells - Make cells to renew cells (maintains cells) - Divided into 2 different cells (precursor + progenitor)
117
Describe Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSC).
Lab generated - Reprogrammed differentiated adult cells Used for research Self-renewing (like embryonic stem cells)
118
State and Describe the Potents of Stem Cells.
Totipotent - Any cell type Pluripotent - Any cell type, except placenta Multipotent - Limited cell differentiation types Oligopotent - Few cell differentiation types Unipotent - One cell differentiation type Progenitor cell - Decedents of stem cells that can further differentiate
119
Describe Blood Cells.
Formed in bone marrow from multipoint haematopeoietic stem cells Erythrocytes (Red blood cells) Leukocytes (White blood cells) Platelets
120
Describe Neurones (Cells).
Self-renewing multipoint stem cells -> Located in subventricular zone + hippocampus Purpose: Transmit information, oldest + longest cells, lack centrioles Astrocytes Oligoadendrocytes
121
Describe Sperm Cells.
``` Purpose: Form organelles Spermatogenesis - Haploid spermatozoa develop from germ cells in seminiferous tubules - Totipotent stem cells Specialisations: - Head (acrosome - enzyme + nucleus) - Tail (undulipodium - movement) - Small + thin ```
122
Describe Tissues.
Organised communities of cells Work together to carry out specific tissues Role determined by cell types Categories: Connective, Epithelial, Muscle, Nervous
123
Describe Epithelial Tissues.
``` Found: - Outer layer of skin - Lining of body cavities - Blood + lymph vessels Protects exposed + internal surfaces from abrasion, dehydration + destruction ```
124
Describe Connective Tissues.
Cells + extracellular matrix (ECM) Function: Protection, Support + Integration Connective tissue proper, Loose + Dense irregular Dense regular, Adipose tissue, Cartilage, Blood, Bone + Haemapoietic tissue
125
Describe Muscle Tissues.
Contract + Produce movement Skeletal (voluntary) muscle Smooth muscle (involuntary) Cardiac muscle -> heart (involuntary)
126
Describe Nervous Tissues.
Specialised for propagation of electrical signals 98% of tissue in brain + spinal cord Functions: Sensory input, Integration, Control of muscles, Glands, Homeostasis + Mental activity
127
Describe an Organ.
Collection of tissues joined in a structural unit for a common function Made of many tissue + several cell types Example: Heart
128
Describe an Organ System.
Group of organs that work together as a biological system to perform one or more function.

Fundamentals - Y1 (3 decks)

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