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Social psychology 2 > Attitudes > Flashcards

Attitudes Flashcards

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1
Q

what is an attitude?

A

associations between attitude objects and evaluations of these objects

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2
Q

how is an attitude represented in memory?

A
  • an evaluative summary of that object
  • an object label and rules for applying that label
  • a knowledge structure supporting that evaluation
    (knowledge structure = information about a certain thing)
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3
Q

Mere exposure effect to explain attitudes

A
  • familiarity breeds contempt
  • e.g. hearing a song lots of times on the radio - learn to like it
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4
Q

classical conditioning to explain attitudes

A
  • neutral stimuli paired with a + or - stimulus on that valence
  • PAVLOV
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5
Q

Instrumental conditioning to explain attitudes

A
  • attitudes shaped by a reinforcement system of reward and punishment
  • encouraging a response/discouraging an undesirable response
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6
Q

observational learning to explain attitudes

A
  • modelling in vicarious experiences
  • see something happening and assume it’s the right thing to do e.g. bandura
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7
Q

why are attitudes said to be contagious?

A
  • whatever attitude you are displaying people tend to pick up on that and act accordingly
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8
Q

information integration theory (cognitive theory of attitudes)

A
  • formed by ‘averaging’ available information on object
  • unobtrusive indirect measures
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9
Q

mood-as-informed hypothesis (cognitive theory of attitudes)

A
  • emotion (mood) provides basis of evaluation of objects
  • apply mood to situation to form ur attitude
  • e.g. like psychology and therefore enjoy psychology lectures
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10
Q

Heuristic / Associative processing

A
  • Decision ‘rule of thumb’ are used to make judgements and form ‘mental shortcuts’ in memory
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11
Q

Attitude formation: self-perception theory

A
  • infer attitudes from own behaviour
    HETEROSEXUAL ANXIETY
    • People who were nervous about attractive people of the opposite sex
    • Attractive person had to respond positively to the conversation
    • More anxious people rated the conversation disastrous unless given lots of positive prompts
      Subsequently less anxious in further interactions with them
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12
Q

Parents as a source of attitude formation

A
  • infer attitudes from those most close to you
  • strength of association ranges from….
  • strong for broad issues e.g. politics, religion
  • very weak for specific attitudes
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13
Q

mass media as a source of attitude formation

A
  • particularly television an important influence of attitude formation especially in children
  • Links between television advertisements and children’s attitude ( ATKIN, 1982)
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14
Q

What are the measures of attitude

A
  • attitude scales (e.g. likert)
  • Physiological measures
  • e.g. measure ur HR/pupil dilation and make inference about what ur attitude is doing, problem HR increases when excited or terrified
  • unobtrusive, indirect measures
  • e.g. watching from bushes
  • Implicit measures
  • e.g. asking if like dairy when trying to see if you like cheese
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15
Q

key explicit measures of attitudes

A
  • questionnaires
  • focus groups
  • interview
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16
Q

strengths of explicit measures

A
  • measured directly
  • good construct validity
  • prone to self-presentation bias
  • predictive measures of deliberate behaviours
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17
Q

key implicit measures of attitudes

A
  • implicit association task - present with stimulus and A and ask to respond using stimuli B
  • non-verbal behaviour
  • examining behaviour
  • evaluative priming - queuing in certain behaviours researchers want e.g. using old people words if wanting people to move slowly
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18
Q

what is evaluative priming

A
  • categorise target words as fast as you can
  • precede by a positive or negative prime
  • positive words with positive prime were better remembered more quickly categorised
  • examins evaluations at individual level
    • Get picture
    • Followed by target word
  • kitten and cute = fast to respond
    • Spider and horrendous = fast to respond
    • Spider and cute - slow
    • Kitten and horrendous = slow
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19
Q

evaluation of evaluative priming

A
  • test-retest reliability low
  • predictive variability low
  • convergeant reliability low
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20
Q

what is the implicit associations task (IAT)?

A

Measures the strength of associations between concepts and evaluations or stereotypes to reveal an individual’s hidden or subconscious biases

20
Q

Spreading activation account for underlying processes of IAT?

A
  • once one attitude has been activated it links the activation of other similar attitudes
  • Prime: delightful activates related terms ( e.g. chocolate, holiday, hobbies)
  • secondary prime chocolate presented, but already partially activated
21
Q

response conflict account for underlying processes of IAT?

A
  • get priming stimulus
  • produces response
  • target stimulus is incongruent with prime, slows rate of response
    *
    E.g. word delightful = produces response which is delightful e.g. chocolate = then presented with something that isn’t delightful e.g. spiders
    • As its incongruent the response is slower as wasn’t what you were expecting
22
Q

outline the predicting behaviour experiement

A
  • meta-analysis of predictive validity of implicit and explicit measures of attitudes (184 samples)
  • implicit measures average r=0.27
  • explicit measures average r=0.36 (greater variability)
  • predictive validity higher when correlated
  • across domains, both valuable as both predict variables independent of the other
23
Q

how does social sensitivity affect predicting behaviour?

A
  • explicit measures of attitudes are more controlled so more likely to act according to your attitude
  • implicit measure have a much weaker connection
  • implicit and explicit correspondence increases the predictive validity of both measures
  • response factors reduce correspondence: demand characteristics; evaluation apprehension; role playing
  • controllability of behaviour did not impact predictive validity
  • complementarity of response categories for IATs
24
Q

what do dual process theories predict?

A

According to dual process theories:
* explicit measures of attitude = deliberate behaviour
*implicit measure of attitude = spontaneous behaviour

25
Q

Outline the study on predictive validity (Asendorpf, Banse & Muckle, 2002)

A
  • wanted to predict shy behaviour
  • 193 heterosexual young adults
  • videotaped in a shyness inducing situation e.g. talking to attractive members of the opposite sex
26
Q

why were participants likely to be shy?

A
  • unfamiliarity of others, opposite sex, attractiveness, evaluation by the confederate, the video recording
27
Q

what behaviour was coded for ‘shyness’?

A
  • speech, body movements, gaze aversion, tenseness of body posture
28
Q

what is the single attitude model?

A
  • joint function of deliberate and spontaneous processes (dual process theories)
  • explicit and implicit different ways or measuring the same thing
29
Q

what is the dual attitude model?

A
  • can hold two (or more) attitudes towards the same thing at the same time
  • which is endorsed will depend on the situation (motivation and cognitive capacity)
30
Q

what is the elaboration likelihood model?

A
  • how motivated and able you are will determine the information processing route
  • central route: when message is followed closely, considerable cognitive effort expended
  • peripheral route: superficial processing if peripheral cues, attraction rather than information
31
Q

what 4 ways can persuasive factors influence attitudes?

A
  • as a cue
  • as an argument
  • determining cognitive elaboration
  • biasing processing of available information
32
Q

what is the heuristic-systematic model?

A

systematic processing - careful deliberative scanning and processing of available information
heuristic processing - people us ‘cognitive heuristics’ to make judgements
- e.g. ‘longer arguments are always convincing’, ‘he looks knowledgeable’

33
Q

what is the sufficiency threshold?

A

as along as heuristics used to a certain degree of confidence, if confidence low then systematic processing also used

34
Q

what is the bias hypothesis?

A

heuristic cues may bias effects of systematic processing

35
Q

what are the differences between the elaborative likelihood model and heuristic systematic systematic model?

A

-ELM: inverse relationship between central and peripheral processing
- HSM: heuristic and systematic processing can occur simultaneously

36
Q

what is the reflective impulsive model?

A
  • reflective (RS) - propositional relations between stimuli, tagged with truth values (e.g. truth/false)
  • impulsive systems (IS) - simple association activated according to similarity and contiguity
  • operate simultaneously but IS has priority as RS only operates when cognitive capacity
37
Q

what are negatives of generalised dual process theories?

A
  • IS can’t process negations or representations of the future
  • motivation key role and can operate within IS in activating related actions, and schematic needs
38
Q

what makes for persuasive communication?

A
  • source or communication: experts more persuasive, celebs or if attractive more persuasive
  • message: more effective if perceived as not trying to influence, repetition increases familiarity, belief and liking
  • audience: people with low self-esteem more susceptible to influence
39
Q

what effect does fear have on persuasiveness?

A
  • low fear = optimal
  • high fear = message promoted greater willingness to stop smoking
40
Q

what is the ‘inverted-U’ hypothesis?

A
  • message with too little fear may not highlight the potential harm of the target
  • very disturbing images may distract people from the message itself or may evoke an ‘avoidance’ reaction (black and Keller, 1995)
41
Q

what do strong fear appeals do?

A
  • produce high levels of perceived severity and susceptibility, and are most persuasive
  • high-efficacy (telling people you can do things to make a difference) messages produce the greatest behaviour change
  • Strong fear appeals with low-efficacy messages produce the greatest levels of defensive responses.
42
Q

What is gain or loss outcome framing?

A
  • Gains = useful for behaviours perceived as low in risk. preventative behaviours, e.g. applying suncream
  • losses = useful for behaviours perceived as higher in risk. Sometimes detection behaviours, e.g. cancer screening (short term risk of detecting negative outcome)
43
Q

how does self-esteem affect people’s attitudes?

A

people with low self esteem were more susceptible to persuasion and attitude change

44
Q

hoe does gender affect people’s attitudes?

A

women more easily persuaded than men:
- socialisation into cooperative roles
- women less familiar with male orientated topics?
- may be due to predominance of male researchers
men particularly resistant to influence by women - especially when communicating has a highly competent, powerful style.

45
Q

what is cognitive dissonance theory?

A
  • How attitudes, behaviour and self-esteem (self-image) are linked
  • Cognitive dissonance – unpleasant state of psychological
    tension when inconsistency occurs.
  • any inconsistency may motivate change.
  • Part of family of balance theory models – people try to be consistent in thought and action
46
Q

what are the 3 premises of cognitive dissonance theory?

A
  • Premise 1: If a person behaves OR is presented
    with information that is counter attitudinal an internal conflict arises – ‘dissonance’.
  • Premise 2: Dissonance motivates people to make alterations to their behavioural or internal states to restore equilibrium.
  • Premise 3: Dissonance can be attenuated (reduced) using 3 means.
  • Reducing the importance of one of the dissonant elements (attitude change).
  • Adding a ‘consonant’ element (cognitive re-appraisal).
  • Changing one of the dissonant elements (behaviour).
47
Q

how does cognitive dissonance affect behaviour?

A
  • Cognitive dissonance describes the tension caused by the discrepancy between individuals beliefs and their current behaviour
  • As dissonance is unpleasant, we’re motivated to change either our actions, or our attitudes
  • Cognitive dissonance can be induced

Social psychology 2 (10 decks)

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