Attention, Sensation & Perception

Question 1

What are the stages of the perceptual process.

Answer 1

Answer:
Receiving Stimuli → Selecting Stimuli → Organising → Interpreting → Response

Explanation:
1. Receiving Stimuli:
When an event can able to generate current flow between -70 to -55 mV in our neurons, it’s called a stimulus. It could be external(outside world) or internal(thinking).

2. Selecting Stimuli:
   
   • External Factors: Nature, location, size, contrast, movement, repetition, similarity.
   • Internal Factors: Learning, needs, age, interests.
3. Organising Stimuli:
   Grouping stimuli using principles like figure-background, similarity, proximity, closure, and continuity.
4. Interpreting Stimuli:
   Interpretation is influenced by attribution, stereotyping, the halo effect, and projection.
5. Response:
   
   • Covert Response: Includes attitudes, motivations, and feelings.
   • Overt Response: Observable behaviors.

Question 2

What are the laws of perceptual organization?

Answer 2

Answer:
The laws of perceptual organization include:

1. Pragnanz: Tendency to perceive the simplest and most stable form possible.
   Example: Olympic logo is perceived in simple form as 5 rings are arranged in a pattern instead of complex form as many more different shaped objects (like parts of venn diagram) arranged in the patten.
2. Connectedness: Elements that are visually connected are perceived as a single unit. Example: Two circles connected with two parallel lines are perceived as a dumbbell (as a single object)
3. Good Continuation: Lines or patterns that follow a smooth path are perceived as belonging together.
   Example: 2 shapes v & ^ are perceived as x when they kept jointly.
4. Similarity: Objects with similar color, shape, or size are grouped together.
5. Proximity: Objects close to each other are perceived as a group.
6. Common Fate: Elements moving in the same direction and speed are perceived as part of a group.
   Examples: Group of goose flying, group dancing, soldier doing parade drill.
7. Meaningfulness or Familiarity: Elements forming familiar or meaningful patterns are grouped together. (Regardless of size, shape or color, etc.,)
   
   • Example: Books in a library or a cricket kit containing a bat, ball, helmet, and gloves.
8. Size Constancy: Objects are perceived as having a consistent size even when viewed from different distances, with closer objects appearing larger than those farther away.
9. Brightness Constancy:
   
   • Objects are perceived as different colors due to immediate brightness changes (e.g., squares on a chessboard).
   • Objects are perceived as the same color with consistent brightness changes (e.g., a cylinder with one side reflecting light and the other in shadow).

Question 3

What is the criticism of the law of connectedness, and who made it?

Answer 3

Answer:
The law of connectedness has been criticized by two modern perceptual psychologists, Irwin Rock and Stephen Palmer.

They argue that for connectedness to be perceived, the size or proportion of the connection must be significant. The connection must appear meaningful and substantial for the mind to register the elements as connected.

Example of the Criticism:
- Imagine two tall buildings connected by a thin electrical wire.
- In this scenario, we do not perceive connectedness, as the connection is minimal and insignificant.
- However, if the same two buildings are connected by a concrete bridge (e.g., on the 4th or 5th floor), the connection appears strong and meaningful.
- In this case, we perceive the buildings as “twin towers” due to the law of connectedness.

Conclusion:
The criticism highlights that the size or diameter of the connection plays a crucial role in the perception of connectedness. Without proper proportion, connectedness may not be perceived effectively.

Question 4

Who are the psychologists contributed to the development of attribution theory over time?

Answer 4

Answer:
Attribution theory is rooted in the works of several psychologists over different periods. The concept was first introduced by Fritz Heider in 1958.

The following psychologists have significantly contributed to attribution theory:

1. Fritz Heider
2. Kurt Lewin
3. John Atkinson
4. Harold Kelley
5. Bernard Weiner

Question 5

Describe the structure of Attribution Theory

Answer 5

Answer:
The structure of attribution theory consists of three stages:

1. Observation:
   
   • Focuses on individual behavior
2. Interpretation:
   
   • Involves analyzing the behavior using three categories:
     
     • Distinctiveness:
       
       • Determines if the person behaves in the same manner across all situations.
     • Consensus:
       
       • Assesses whether others behave in the same way in the given situation.
     • Consistency:
       
       • Evaluates whether the person behaves the same way over time.
3. Attribution of Cause:
   
   • Based on the observation and interpretation, the cause of the behavior is attributed as either internal (personal traits) or external (situational factors).
     • High distinctiveness (external): The person behaves differently in different situations.
     • Low distinctiveness (internal): The person behaves similarly in all situations.
     • High consensus (external): Many people behave similarly.
     • Low consensus (internal): Few people behave in the same way.
     • High consistency (internal): The person behaves the same way consistently.
     • Low consistency (external): The person behaves differently over time.

Question 6

Describe Anne Treisman’s Feature Integration Theory.

Answer 6

Answer:
Anne Treisman’s Feature Integration Theory (FIT) explains how humans perceive different objects (e.g., mobile, laptop, or a friend) through various stages. The theory involves two primary stages with six steps:

Stages of Feature Integration Theory:

Stage I - Pre-attentive Stage:

• Step 1: Identifying primitive features such as lines, edges, or colors. This is an automatic process that happens before conscious attention is engaged.

Stage II - Focused Attention Stage: (This stage is conscious and deliberate)

• Step 2: Attentional focus is directed towards specific features, like brightness, motion, or unique visual elements.
• Step 3: Combining features or primitives to form a unified perception.
• Step 4: Perception of 3 dimensional world through the integration of spatial and depth information.
• Step 5: Comparison with memory to recognize patterns or objects through the relevant past information we have in our memory.
• Step 6: Identification of the object, such as recognizing “this is my phone” or “this is my friend.”

We come across all these steps when we identify objects.

Criticism of Feature Integration Theory:
- The theory lacks explanation of the biological role in object perception.
- Critics argue that it should account for the involvement of specific brain regions.
- Critics said that, there is a specific part of brain that is responsible for this whole process, that is called Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN) (a brain part responsible for processing visual information), yet this is not addressed in the theory.

In summary, Treisman’s FIT provides a detailed framework for understanding object perception but is criticized for omitting biological aspects.

Question 7

Which is the specific part of the brain that is responsible for processing visual information?

Answer 7

Answer:
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN).