Attention and Consciousness Flashcards
means by which we actively process a limited amount of information from the enormous amount of information available through our senses, our stored memories, and our other cognitive processes
Attention
allows us to use our limited mental resources judiciously.
Attention
By dimming the lights on many stimuli from outside (sensations) and inside (thoughts and memories), we can highlight the stimuli that interest us. This heightened focus increases the likelihood that we can respond speedily and accurately to interesting stimuli.
Attention
the state of being aware of and able to think about one’s own existence, thoughts, and surroundings.
Consciousness
It encompasses our overall awareness and subjective experience.
Consciousness
First, it helps in monitoring our interactions with the environment
Conscious attention
it assists us in linking our past (memories) and our present (sensations) to give us a sense of continuity of experience.
Conscious attention
it helps us in controlling and planning for our future actions.
Conscious attention
We try to detect the appearance of a particular stimulus
Signal detection and vigilance
We try to find a signal amidst distracters
Search
We choose to attend to some stimuli and ignore others, as when we are involved in a conversation at a party.
Selective attention
We prudently allocate our available attentional resources to coordinate our performance of more than one task at a time, as when we are cooking and engaged in a phone conversation at the same time.
Divided attention
In short notice they need to be attentive to see emergency going on in the beach that needs immediate care, and in longer period making sure that they are attentive throughout the working day see to it nothing tragic happens
Attending to Signals over the Short and Long Terms or Attention
Finding Important Stimuli in a Crowd
Signal Detection
a framework to explain how people pick out the few important stimuli when they are embedded in a wealth of irrelevant, distracting stimuli
Signal-detection theory (SDT)
often is used to measure sensitivity to a target’s presence.
SDT
When we try to detect a target stimulus (signal), there are four possible outcomes
hits
false alarms
misses
correct rejections
paying enough attention to perceive objects that are there
attention
perceiving faint signals that may or may not be beyond your perceptual range (such as a very high-pitched tone)
perception
indicating whether you have/have not been exposed to a stimulus before
memory
refers to a person’s ability to attend to a field of stimulation over a prolonged period, during which the person seeks to detect the appearance of a particular target stimulus of interest.
Vigilance
the individual watchfully waits to detect a signal stimulus that may appear at an unknown time
being vigilant
appears to be an important brain structure in the regulation of vigilance
amygdala
Two specific activation states play a role in vigilance
bursts and the tonic state
the result of relative hyperpolarization of the resting membrane potential (i.e., polarity of the membrane increases relative to its surrounding)
burst
results from relative depolarization
tonic state
During sleep, when people are less responsive to stimuli, the neurons are hyperpolarized and in burst mode higher levels of vigilance are associated with tonic discharges.
need iremember
refers to a scan of the environment for particular features—actively looking for something when you are not sure where it will appear.
search
made more difficult by distracters, nontarget stimuli that divert our attention away from the target stimulus.
search
cause more trouble under some conditions than under others.
Distracters
Suppose we look for an item with a distinct feature like color or shape. We conduct a ___?
feature search
simply scan the environment for that feature
feature search
we look for a particular combination (conjunction joining together) of features
conjunction search
explains the relative ease of conducting feature searches and the relative difficulty of conducting conjunction searches.
Feature-Integration Theory
Feature-Integration Theory proposed by?
Anne Treisman and Garry Gelade in 1980
focuses on how we integrate various visual features to perceive and identify objects in our environment.
Feature-Integration Theory
Imagine you’re searching for a red apple in a bowl of mixed fruits.
Pre-Attentive Stage: Your visual system detects various features of all fruits—colors (red, green, yellow), shapes (round, oval), and sizes (small, large) in parallel.
Focused Attention Stage: To identify the red apple, you focus your attention on combining the color red with the shape of an apple. This integration process involves scanning and attending to different fruits to find one that matches both features.
the data are a result of the fact that as the similarity between target and distracter stimuli increases, so does the difficulty in detecting the target stimuli. Thus, targets that are highly similar to distracters are relatively hard to detect. Targets that are highly disparate from distracters are relatively easy to detect
Similarity Theory
suggests that all searches, whether feature searches or conjunction searches, involve two consecutive stages
The guided-search model
the individual simultaneously activates a mental representation of all the potential targets
parallel stage
the individual sequentially evaluates each of the activated elements, according to the degree of activation
Serial stage
Imagine you are looking for a specific type of book on a crowded bookshelf:
Feature Maps: You first detect features like color and size. Each book is processed for these individual features.
Salience Map: The visual system combines these features to create a salience map highlighting books that stand out based on the detected features.
Top-Down Guidance: If you know the book you’re looking for is a hardcover and red, this prior knowledge directs your attention toward books that are red and likely to be hardcover, making the search more efficient.
cocktail party problem, the process of tracking one conversation in the face of the distraction of other conversations.
Selective Attention
Shadowing listen to two different messages
Selective Attention
one of the earliest theories of attention, we filter information right after we notice it at the sensory level
Broadbent’s Model
All incoming information is processed equally and that we use filters to manage the flow of information.
Broadbent’s Model
the selective filter blocks out most information at the sensory level.
Selective Filter Model
Unlike Broadbent’s model, which proposed that unattended information is completely blocked Attenuation Model suggests that unattended information is not entirely filtered out but rather attenuated or weakened. This means that some unattended information can still be processed to a degree.
Attenuation Model
suggesting that the selection of information for further processing happens later in the cognitive process
Late-Filter Model
According to the Late-Filter Model, all incoming sensory information is processed for meaning (semantic processing) before any selection or filtering occurs. This means that the initial stages of processing involve understanding and interpreting all sensory inputs.
Post-Perceptual Processing
The selection of which information to respond to or focus on happens after all inputs have been analyzed for meaning. Essentially, the selection occurs at a later stage, based on the relevance or importance of the information.
Selective Attention
Study Setup: Participants watched a videotape where a basketball game was superimposed on a hand-slapping game. They were tasked with monitoring both activities simultaneously.
Findings: Participants struggled to monitor both activities at once, even when each game was presented to a different eye
Hypotheses: Neisser and Becklen proposed that improvements in performance with practice were likely, but they believed this was due to skill development rather than special cognitive mechanisms
Early Research
Study Setup: Participants performed a dual-task involving reading short stories and writing dictated words. Performance was measured in terms of response time (latency) and accuracy.
Findings: Initially, performance was poor for both tasks when done simultaneously. However, with extensive practice (85 sessions over several weeks), participants improved significantly. They became faster at reading and more accurate in comprehension and memory tasks.
Observations: Participants eventually noticed relationships among dictated words and could perform both tasks effectively without a loss in performance.
Conclusions: Spelke and colleagues concluded that with enough practice, controlled tasks can be automatized to require fewer attentional resources. Despite this, tasks remain intentional and involve significant cognitive processing.
Dual-Task Paradigm
Study Setup: Research focused on simple, speeded tasks requiring quick responses.
Findings: Performance on one or both tasks typically slowed when tasks overlapped. This phenomenon, known as the psychological refractory period (PRP) effect or attentional blink, indicated that while perceptual processing of sensory stimuli can be managed, cognitive tasks (e.g., response selection, memory retrieval) suffer when performed simultaneously.
Implication: People can handle multiple perceptual tasks but struggle with cognitive operations requiring response choices or memory retrieval when tasks overlap.
Speeded Tasks and PRP Effect
Study Setup: Participants solved mathematical problems while simultaneously listening for a tone and pressing a button upon hearing it.
Findings: More intelligent individuals performed both tasks more effectively. Intelligence was linked to better division of attention and multitasking ability.
Role of Intelligence
Practice can improve performance on multiple tasks, allowing tasks to be performed with fewer resources, though they do not become fully automatic.
Practice and Automatization
Simultaneous performance of cognitive tasks often results in slower responses due to the PRP effect.
Cognitive Load
Intelligence affects the ability to multitask effectively, with more intelligent individuals typically performing better on divided attention tasks.
Individual Differences
These models explain how we manage to do more than one attention-demanding task at the same time.
capacity models
suggests that our attention is a limited resource. Just like we have a limited amount of physical energy to spend on tasks, we have a limited amount of mental attention that we can allocate. When we do multiple tasks, we have to split this limited resource among them.
Attentional-resources theory
Concept: This model proposes that we have one single pool of attentional resources. We can divide this pool between different tasks as needed.
Single Pool Model
Example: If you’re trying to do two tasks that both require verbal attention (like listening to a podcast while writing), the tasks might interfere with each other because they both draw from the same pool of verbal attention
Single Pool Model
Concept: This model suggests that we have several separate pools of attention, each dedicated to different types of tasks or sensory modalities (e.g., visual, auditory).
Multiple Pools Model
Example: Listening to music (auditory) while reading (visual) is easier because each task draws from a different pool of attention. This separation helps reduce interference between tasks
Multiple Pools Model
Some argue that attentional-resources theory is too broad and doesn’t fully capture the complexity of attention. For example, it might not explain all aspects of how we manage attention, particularly in specific situations.
Criticisms
Attentional-resources theory works well with other theories, such as filter theories. Filter theories focus on how we select and prioritize information when attention is limited, while resource theories provide a broader view of how attention is distributed.
Complementary Theories
is crucial in our daily lives. For example, when driving, you need to be aware of potential dangers around you. If you don’t pay enough attention, like missing a car running a red light, you could cause or become part of a serious accident. Many car accidents are due to poor divided attention.
Divided attention
When participants did this task alone without any other distractor, they were faster and more accurate however when listening to the radio or talking on a cell phone has been added the accuracy of pressing the break or ignore it based on the color has decrease. Talking on a cell phone while driving was found to be much riskier than listening to the radio. Research shows that cell phone use can be as dangerous as drunk driving, and drivers talking on the phone are more likely to exhibit anger and aggression, which can increase the likelihood of accidents. This explains why cell phone use while driving contributes significantly to accidents.
Divided attention
Getting ready to pay attention and staying alert
Alerting
Brain Areas: Right frontal and parietal cortexes, locus coeruleus
alerting
Neurotransmitter: Norepinephrine (is essential for regulating alertness, managing stress responses, affecting mood, and supporting cognitive functions. Its proper functioning is crucial for overall mental and physical well-being.)
alerting
Dysfunction: Problems with alerting can lead to ADHD or issues with aging
alerting
refers to the process of directing attention to specific stimuli or locations in our environment.
Orienting
It involves several cognitive and neural mechanisms that allow us to focus on what is important and ignore irrelevant information
Orienting
Brain Areas: Superior parietal lobe, temporal-parietal junction, frontal eye fields, superior colliculus.
orienting
These brain areas work together to manage how we focus our attention on specific stimuli or locations. They help in directing visual attention, responding to new or significant events, and making sure that our gaze aligns with what we need to focus on. By integrating sensory information and controlling eye movements, these regions enable efficient and effective orienting of attention.
orienting
Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine
orienting
crucial for cognitive processes like attention, learning, and memory formation
Acetylcholine
Dysfunction: Issues with orienting are linked to autism
orienting
Managing and resolving conflicts among thoughts, feelings, and responses
Executive Attention
Brain Areas: Anterior cingulate, lateral ventral, prefrontal cortex, basal ganglia.
Executive Attention
Manages cognitive control, task switching, and goal setting, enabling complex decision-making and planning.
Lateral Prefrontal Cortex
Monitors conflicts and errors, integrates emotional information, and adjusts attention based on performance
Anterior Cingulate Cortex
Controls response inhibition and integrates emotional information with cognitive processes
Ventral Prefrontal Cortex
Selects and initiates actions, influences motor control, learning, and habit formation, and helps in prioritizing responses.
Basal Ganglia
Neurotransmitter: Dopamine
Executive Attention
Dysfunction: Problems here are associated with Alzheimer’s disease, borderline personality disorder, and schizophrenia
Executive Attention
suggests that intelligence involves three key processing units, each linked to different brain areas
PASS model of intelligence
Arousal and Attention: Associated with the brainstem and other regions, crucial for selective and divided attention.
Intelligence and Attention
Simultaneous and Successive Processing: Involves understanding and processing information either all at once or in a sequence.
Intelligence and Attention
Planning: Involves decision-making and goal setting
Intelligence and Attention
The time needed to focus on and decide about items.
Inspection Time
Measurement: Typically involves showing a target stimulus for a brief period and requiring a decision on which option is correct
Inspection Time
Findings: Shorter inspection times are linked to higher intelligence scores, indicating that quicker decision-making can reflect higher cognitive abilities.
Inspection Time
Concept: Intelligence is sometimes linked to how quickly the brain processes informationq
Reaction Time
Experiment Choice Reaction Time: The time taken to choose the correct answer from multiple options
Reaction Time
Findings: People with higher IQs generally have faster reaction times. This suggests quicker neural processing might be associated with higher intelligence.
Reaction Time
Research often involves people with typical attention, but studying those with attention issues, such as brain damage or reduced blood flow in critical areas, helps us understand attentional processes better.
Normal Participants vs. Those with Deficits
Problems with attention are associated with damage in these areas.
Frontal Lobe and Basal Ganglia
Issues with visual attention are linked to these regions, as well as parts of the midbrain that control eye movements.
Posterior Parietal Cortex and Thalamus
A condition characterized by persistent issues with attention and hyperactivity.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Examples of how failing to pay attention can lead to missing changes or important details in our environment.
Change and Inattentional Blindness
happens when people fail to notice changes in a scene or object while they are focused on something else.
Change blindness
Traffic Safety: A driver might not notice a car that has suddenly appeared in their lane if they are distracted, increasing the risk of accidents.
Change blindness
Medical Screening: A radiologist might miss a critical change in a scan (like a growing tumor) if they don’t notice the subtle differences from previous scans.
Change blindness
occurs when people fail to see objects that are in their visual field because they are focused on something else.
Relevance:
Inattentional blindness
A doctor might overlook a visible symptom or a piece of crucial information in a patient’s medical history if they are focused on other aspects of the examination.
Inattentional blindness
Driving: A driver might not see a pedestrian crossing the road if they are concentrating on their phone or GPS, leading to potential accidents.
Inattentional blindness
