attachment - caregivers & infants

Question 1

what are examples of caregiver-infant interactions in humans:

Answer 1

reciprocity and interactional synchrony

Question 2

what is an attachment?

Answer 2

an emotional tie or bond between
two people, usually a primary caregiver and a child

Question 3

what type of relationship is an attachment?

Answer 3

reciprocal (shared), which means that it is a two-way relationship that endures over time

Question 4

why do infants need to form attachments?

Answer 4

-short term benefits
-long term benefits

Question 5

short term benefits of attachment:

Answer 5

survival:
if an infant is attached to a caregiver they are more likely to be fed and kept safe and so they will survive

Question 6

long term benefits of attachment:

Answer 6

emotional relationships:
-it is believed that the first attachment relationship acts as a template for later relationships
-if the first attachment is positive, then all future attachments will be positive

Question 7

which infants can be observed to see if they have formed attachments?

Answer 7

infant that are mobile (can move)

Question 8

which behaviours do psychologists look for to see if there is an attachment?

Answer 8

proximity seeking:
infants try to stay physically close to the caregiver

separation anxiety:
infants become distressed when an attachment figure leaves their presence. infants will hold their hands up, cry or try to follow the caregiver

secure-base behaviour

Question 9

what is secure-based behaviour?

Answer 9

-when a child feels comfortable they may leave their caregiver to play
-however, the infant makes regular contact with the attachment figure (return to their attachment figure when playing)
-the caregiver acts as a secure base form which the child can go off and explore
-if the child feels anxious in any way, it would return to the caregiver

Question 10

why are animals different in terms of attachment?

Answer 10

-most non-human animals are immediately mobile from birth
-they are born and then can immediately move away from the mother
-this means that these need to form an attachment for survival is even greater
-this is because the infant will need to attach to the caregiver to be kept safe from harm and fed

Question 11

how do we study interactions between a caregiver and an infant?

Answer 11

observations

Question 12

what is one of the key interactions between caregivers and infants?

Answer 12

their non-verbal communication:
-such interactions may form the basis of attachment between an infant and
caregiver
-the way each responds to the other that determines the formation of attachment
-the more sensitive each is to the others’ signals, the deeper the relationship

Question 13

what is reciprocity?

Answer 13

a non verbal conversation between caregivers and infants, an infant responds to the actions of another person and turns are taken

(each person’s interactions affect the other)

Question 14

how do babies conversate from birth?(reciprocity)

Answer 14

-babies move in a rhythm when interacting with an adult, almost as if they are taking turns, as people do in a conversation

Question 15

when does reciprocity develop?

Answer 15

-in its simplest form, at a very early age.
-according to Feldman (2007), reciprocity can be seen in interactions earlier than 3 months of age

Question 16

what happens to reciprocity after 3 months?

Answer 16

reciprocity increases in frequency:
-the infant and caregiver pay increasing attention to each other’s verbal and facial communications

Question 17

what is sensitive responsiveness & what does it do?

Answer 17

the extent to which a parent is in tune with a child’s emotional state & is able to decode signs accurately, and is able to respond appropriately and in a timely fashion → this will lay the strong foundations for attachment to develop later between the caregiver and infant

Question 18

examples of responsiveness:

Answer 18

smiling back at the baby when he/she smiles; picking them up and giving a cuddle when they cry

Question 19

reciprocity studies:

Answer 19

-traditional views of childhood see the infant as passive, merely receiving care from an adult
-however, it seems that a baby takes an active role
-murray and trevarthen (1985) asked mothers to adopt a ‘frozen/still face’ and not interact → 2 months old babies were very upset and tried to draw mother back into interaction)
-this shows that the infant is actively trying to interact with the caregiver

Question 20

what is interactional synchrony?

Answer 20

-when infants mirror the actions or emotions of another person, for example, their facial expressions
-caregiver and infant signals
synchronise (occur simultaneously)

Question 21

what does interactional synchrony aim for?

Answer 21

to sustain communication between the two individuals

Question 22

key study of interactional synchrony:

Answer 22

meltzoff and moore (1977)

Question 23

the aim of meltzoff and moore’s study:

Answer 23

to examine interactional synchrony in infants

Question 24

the method of meltzoff and moore’s study:

Answer 24

controlled observation:
-an adult model displayed one of three facial expressions
-to start with, the child had a dummy placed in his/her mouth to prevent a facial response
-following the display from the adult model, the dummy was removed and the child’s expressions were filmed

Question 25

the results of meltzoff and moore’s study:

Answer 25

-there was a clear association between the infants’ behaviour and that of the
adult model
-later research by meltzoff and moore (1983) found the same findings in
three-day-old infants

Question 26

conclusion of meltzoff and moore’s study:

Answer 26

these findings suggest that interactional synchrony exists and is innate
and reduces the strength of any claim that imitative behaviour/interactional synchrony is learned

Question 27

strengths of caregiver-infant research:

Answer 27

-interactional synchrony is important for attachment
-the research is uses well-controlled observations

Question 28

ao3 / strength - interactional synchrony is important for attachment

Answer 28

P - interactional synchrony is important for attachment

E - isabella et al (1989) observed 30 mothers and infants together and assessed the degree of synchrony
↳ the researchers also assessed the quality of mother-infant attachment
↳ they found that high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality infant-mother attachment (the emotional intensity of the relationship)

L - this shows that interactional synchrony is important for successful attachments

Question 29

ao3 / strength - the research uses well-controlled observations

Answer 29

P - the research uses well-controlled observations

E - mother-infant pairs are often filmed, often from multiple angles, which means that very fine details of the observation can be recorded and analysed later
↳ babies don’t know they’re being observed so their behaviour will not change in response to the observation (realistic behaviour and not influenced by observer effects)

L - this is a strength of the research because it means the studies will have good validity

Question 30

weaknesses of caregiver-infant research:

Answer 30

-infant behaviour isn’t all intentional
-the findings are socially sensitive

Question 31

ao3 / weaknesses - it is hard to know what is happening when observing infants

Answer 31

P - it is hard to know what is happening when observing infants

E - infants move their mouths and wave their arms constantly, which is an issue for researchers investigating intentional behaviour
↳ we cannot be certain that the infants were actually engaging in interactional synchrony or reciprocity, as some of the behaviour may have occurred by chance
↳ it’s difficult to be sure if the child’s actions are intentional

L - we cannot be certain that these interactions have any special meaning

Question 32

ao3 / weaknesses - the findings are socially sensitive

Answer 32

P - the findings of caregiver-infant research is socially sensitive

E - it suggests that children may be disadvantaged by particular child rearing practices
↳ mothers who return to work shortly after a child is born may restrict the opportunities for interactional synchrony and so risk the formation of a secure attachment

L - this suggests that mothers should not return to work soon after having a child which has socially sensitive implications

Question 33

what is the difference between
reciprocity and interactional
synchrony?

Answer 33

-reciprocity is where the mother and infant respond to each other’s signals and each elicits a response from the other

interactional synchrony:
-mother and infant reflect both the actions and emotions of the other, they do this in a co- ordinated, synchronised way

Question 34

AO3 issues and debates:
(caregiver-infant interactions)

Answer 34

-caregiver–infant interactions (e.g. reciprocity) are present from
birth and therefore are the product of nature
-however, such innate behaviours do not act in isolation and interact with the environment (caregivers) to prompt to response (e.g. attention)

Question 35

proud father Abdul was talking to his friend, as they were both watching Abdul’s wife, Tasneem, interacting with their baby daughter, Aisha.

‘It’s amazing really’, said Abdul.
‘Tasneem smiles, Aisha smiles back.

Tasneem moves her head, Aisha moves hers, perfectly in time with each other.’
‘Yes’, agreed the friend. ‘It’s almost as if they are one person.’

1) what are examples of caregiver-infant interactions and where are they shown in this question?

Answer 35

-one feature of caregiver-infant interaction is reciprocity, wherein
an infant and a caregiver are in
are non-verbal conversation with one another and respond/react to each other
↳ this is shown when ‘Tasneem smiles, Aisha smiles back’.

another feature of caregiver- infant interaction is interactional synchrony,
this is when an infant mirrors/copies the behaviour of their caregiver at the same time that they perform their behaviour
↳ this is demonstrated when: ‘Tasneem moves her head, Aisha moves hers perfectly in time with each other’

Question 36

who did the studies into the stages of attachment and when?

Answer 36

schaffer and emerson (1964)

Question 37

the name of schaffer and emerson’s study:

Answer 37

Glasgow Infant Study

Question 38

the aim of schaffer and emerson’s study:

Answer 38

to examine the formation of early attachments

Question 39

the sample of schaffer and emerson’s study:

Answer 39

60 babies (31 male, 29 female)
↳ from working class families in glasgow
↳ aged between 5-23 weeks at the start of the investigation

Question 40

the method of schaffer and emerson’s study:

Answer 40

longitudinal study:
-the researchers visited the babies in their homes, every month for the first 12 months and then once again at 18 months
-the mothers were asked to keep a diary of the infant’s response to separation in a range of everyday situations
-the researchers also carried out direct observations of the infants’ reaction when they approached him (stranger anxiety)

Question 41

schaffer and emerson: examples of the range of everyday situations that mother’s write in their diary…

Answer 41

-left alone in a room
-left with other people
-left in their pram outside the house/shops
-left in their cot at night

Question 42

the stages of attachment:

Answer 42

-asocial
-indiscriminate attachments
-discriminate (specific) attachments
-multiple attachments

Question 43

the asocial stage of attachment:
(age, description)

Answer 43

age: 0 - 2 months

description:
-an infant shows similar responses to objects and people
-although towards the end of this stage they do display a preference for faces / eyes

Question 44

the indiscriminate stage of attachment:
(age, description)

Answer 44

age: 2 - 6 months

description:
-an infant now shows a preference for human company over non-human company
-they can distinguish between different people, but are comforted indiscriminately (by anyone) and do not show stranger anxiety yet

Question 45

the discriminate stage of attachment:
(age, description)

Answer 45

age: 7 - 12 months

description:
-an infant shows a preference for one caregiver, displaying separation and
stranger anxiety
-the infant looks to a particular person for security and protection
-the infant shows joy upon reunion and are comforted by their primary caregiver

Question 46

the multiple attachment stage:
(age, description)

Answer 46

age: 1 year+

description:
-attachment behaviours are now displayed towards several different people (e.g. siblings, grandparents) and are sometimes referred to as secondary attachments
-they typically form in the first month after the primary attachment is formed
-the number of multiple attachments which develop depends on the social circle to whom the infant is exposed

Question 47

separation anxiety is ‘unhappiness when separated from a certain person. how would schaffer and emerson have judged whether the infant was unhappy?

Answer 47

crying, fear, distress

Question 48

Jock and Morag live with their son Tam and Morag’s mother, who looks after little Tam while Jock and Morag both work.
Despite the fact that Morag works, she makes a special effort to sit and play with Tam when she gets home.

When Tam got to the age of 7 months old he began to get quite upset when his parents left for work. His grandmother tried to distract him and give him lots of attention.

Answer 48

…

Question 49

referring to Schaffer and Emerson’s stages of attachment, how would you explain to Jock and Morag why Tam’s behaviour has changed?

Answer 49

-tam’s behaviour has probably changed because he has entered schaffer and
emerson’s third stage of specific attachment.

-now that tam is seven months old, tam’s attachment behaviour is now
directed towards his mother, and he will show distress at separation from her,
even when he is being cared for by another familiar adult - in this case his
grandmother

Question 50

based on Schaffer and Emerson’s stages, what could you advise them to expect from Tam’s attachment behaviour in the future?

Answer 50

according to Schaffer and Emerson, the stage of specific attachment is
followed quickly by a stage of multiple attachments. as Tam’s grandmother is a
familiar adult we would expect that she will become a secondary attachment
figure. therefore we would not expect Tam’s protest to last very long.

Question 51

strengths of schaffer and emerson’s research:

Answer 51

-high external validity
-longitudinal study

Question 52

ao3 / strength - high external validity

Answer 52

P - high external validity

E - schaffer and emerson conducted the observations in each child’s own home which means that the children and parents were more likely to act naturally

L - therefore, the study has good external validity as the results are likely to apply to other children from a similar demographic in their own homes

Question 53

ao3 / strength - longitudinal study

Answer 53

P - longitudinal study

E - the same children were followed up
and observed regularly

L - longitudinal designs have good internal validity because they aren’t affected by participant variables

Question 54

criticisms of schaffer and emerson’s research:

Answer 54

-lacks population validity
-possibility of social desirability bias

Question 55

ao3 / criticism - lacks population validity

Answer 55

P - the research lacks population validity

E - the sample consisted of only 60 working class mothers and babies from glasgow, who may form very different
attachments with their infants when compared with wealthier families / other countries

L - we can’t generalise the results of this
study to mothers and babies from other countries and backgrounds as their behaviour might not be comparable

Question 56

ao3 / criticism - possibility of social desirability bias

Answer 56

P - possibility of social desirability bias

E - schaffer and emerson interviewed the mothers about their children and some of them may not have reported accurate details about their children, to appear like ‘better’ mothers with secure attachments

L - this could cause a bias in the data that would reduce the internal validity of the findings since natural behaviour will
not have been recorded about the stages of attachment

Question 57

ao3 issues & debates: schaffer & emerson’s stages

Answer 57

schaffer stages are nomothetic approach → they propose a general law for child development

Question 58

criticisms of the stages of schaffer’s stages of attachment:

Answer 58

-there are issues with studying the asocial stage
-the stage model may only apply to certain cultures
-using stage theory to describe a child’s behaviour is inflexible

Question 59

ao3 / criticism - there are issues with studying the asocial stage

Answer 59

P - there are issues with studying the asocial stage

E - it is very difficult to gather any meaningful data from infants at this age as they are immobile and have little
coordination
↳ this makes it difficult to make judgements based on observations of their behaviour

L - it may be that the babies are quite social but they APPEAR to be asocial
(therefore schaffer an emerson’s stages are questionable)

Question 60

ao3 / criticism - the stage model may only apply to certain cultures

Answer 60

P - the stage model may only apply to certain cultures

E - britain and USA are individualistic cultures – each person in the society is concerned with their own needs and that of their family group
↳ in contrast, collectivist cultures are more focused on the needs of the
group
↳ they share many things such as possessions and childcare
↳ in these societies we would expect multiple attachments to be more common (families work together to raise
children) and it has been found that they appear from a very early
age

L - the stage model only seems to apply to individualistic cultures and so
lacks external validity

Question 61

ao3 / criticism - using stage theory to describe a child’s behaviour is
inflexible

Answer 61

P - using stage theory to describe a child’s behaviour is inflexible

E - it suggests that single attachments must come before multiple attachments
↳ in some situations and cultures multiple attachments may come first

L - this is a problem because the use of stages becomes the standard by which families are judged and it could cause families to be seen as abnormal

Question 62

who is a child’s primary attachment usually to?

Answer 62

their mother

Question 63

percentages of attachment to different PCGs:
(schaffer & emerson)

Answer 63

schaffer and emerson’s found…
-in 3% of cases the father was the first sole object of attachment
-in 27% cases the father was the joint first attachment along with the mother

Question 64

when do most children attach to the father?
(schaffer and emerson)

Answer 64

by 18 months
(75% of the infants had formed an attachment to the father)

Question 65

how did schaffer and emerson’s deduce that the infants were attached to the father?

Answer 65

infants protested when their father walked away, a sign of attachment

Question 66

what was the traditional role of the father and mother?

Answer 66

-limited, fathers would go to work to provide resources (breadwinner) whilst the mothers stayed home and took care
of the children

Question 67

how has the role of the father changed over the years?

Answer 67

-nowadays, both women and men can work and share the childcare
-it’s only recently that fathers were given
paternity leave (2 weeks long)

Question 68

hormonal reasons for fathers being ineffective attachment figures:

Answer 68

-some researchers claim that men are not equipped to form an attachment.
-biological evidence suggests that the hormone oestrogen is the cause of caring behaviour in women

-men lack oestrogen and so they may be unable to form a close attachment with a child

Question 69

ao3 / evidence for fathers not providing sensitive attachments :

Answer 69

research evidence suggests that fathers aren’t as equipped as mothers to
provide a sensitive and nurturing attachment

-hrdy (1999) found that fathers were less able to detect low levels of infant
distress, in comparison to mothers
-these results support the biological explanation that the lack of oestrogen in men means that fathers are not equipped innately to form close
attachments with their children

-this suggests that the role of the father is, to some extent, biologically
determined and that a father’s role is restricted because of their makeup

-this provides further evidence that fathers are not able to provide a sensitive and nurturing type of attachment, as they are unable to detect stress in their children

Question 70

ao3 / evidence for fathers being effective attachment figures:

Answer 70

-there is evidence to suggest that when fathers do take on the role of being the main caregiver, they adopt behaviours more typical of mothers

-research carried out by field (1978) compared the behaviours of primary caretaker mothers with primary and secondary caretaker fathers

-face-to-face interactions were analysed from video footage with infants at 4 months of age
-overall, it was observed that fathers engaged more in game playing and held their infants less (which gives evidence to the playful role of the father)

-however, primary caretaker fathers engaged in significantly more smiling, imitative grimaces, and imitative vocalisations, these were comparable with mothers’ behaviour

-this suggests that fathers can be responsive to the needs of their child if they need to be

Question 71

the difference between the role of a mother and father:

Answer 71

-some researchers argue that fathers do not take on a caregiver role and in fact provide a different role
-one that is more to do with play and
stimulation and less to do with nurturing

Question 72

ao3 / evidence for the role of the father as playmate

Answer 72

P - there is research evidence that provides support for the role of the father as a ‘playmate’ rather than primary caregiver

E - research by Geiger (1996) found that a fathers’ play interactions were more exciting in comparison to a mothers
↳ however, the mothers’ play interactions were more affectionate and nurturing
↳ this suggests that the role of the father is in fact as a playmate and not as a sensitive parent who responds to the needs of their children

L - these results also confirm that the mother takes on a nurturing role

Question 73

criticisms of the role of fathers:

Answer 73

-research fails to provide a clear answer about fathers and primary attachments
-social biases may prevent objective observation
-the research has economic implications
-there are many other factors that can affect the attachment between a child and a father

Question 74

ao3 / research fails to provide a clear answer about fathers and primary attachments

Answer 74

P - research fails to provide a clear answer about fathers and primary attachments

E - the answer could be related to traditional gender roles in which women
are expected to be more caring and nurturing than men
↳ therefore maybe fathers don’t feel that they should act in a nurturing way
↳ another explanation is that maybe female hormones create higher levels of nurturing in women

L - this makes it difficult to answer the question, what the role of the father is

Question 75

ao3 / social biases may prevent objective observation

Answer 75

P - social biases may prevent objective observation

E - preconceptions about how fathers behave are created by common discussions about parenting behaviour
↳ the stereotype that men are more playful, for example, may cause unintentional observer bias

L -conclusions about the role of the father in attachment are difficult to distinguish from social biases about their role

Question 76

ao3 / this research has economic implications

Answer 76

P - this research has economic implications

E - mothers may feel pressured to stay at home because of research that says they are vital for healthy emotional development
↳ in some families this may not be the best solution economically

L - the research may not be of comfort to mothers who have to make choices about returning to work

Question 77

ao3 / there are many other factors that can affect the attachment between a child and a father

Answer 77

P - a difficulty in examining the role of the father is that there are many other factors that can affect the attachment between a child and a father

E - research suggests that fathers can form secure attachments with their
children, only if they are in an intimate marriage
↳ belsky et al (2009) found that males who reported higher levels of marital
intimacy also displayed a secure father–infant attachment, whereas males with
lower levels of marital intimacy displayed insecure father–infant attachments
↳ this suggests that males can form secure attachments with their children but the strength of the attachment depends on the father and mother’s relationship

L - this shows that the role of the father depends on many factors, including the
relationship with the mother