attachment Flashcards
reciprocity
A description of how two people interact. Mother-infant interaction is reciprocal in that both infant and mother respond to each other’s signals and each elicits a response from the other.
Interactional synchrony
Mother and infant reflect both the actions and emotions of the other and do this in a co-ordinated (synchronized) way.
What are the three features of attachment
Proximity with primary caregiver
The infant shows distress at separation from that person (separation anxiety)
This distress ends on reunion with the carer.
Fear of strangers and handling by other
people (stranger anxiety).
Secure-Base Behavior - Making regular contact with the ones your attached to. Infants when playing regularly return to their caregivers
What is type of experiment is used to caregiver - infant interaction?
observations are used to investigate caregiver- infant
interaction
Most use controlled observations
Infants are often not aware and don’t care that they are being observed-
What are the methodological issues with controlled observations?
Ethical issues- consent (mother consenting for herself and infant); distress if baby is
in an unfamiliar setting
HOWEVER
Good ecological validity despite controlled setting as babies may not realise they
are being observed
Supporting evidence for caregiver-infant interaction (2)
Feldmann (2007) From 3 months interaction increases and is more frequent- it involves close attention to each others verbal signals and facial expressions
Feldmann and Eidelmann (2007)
Mothers pick up on and respond to
infant alertness 2/3 of the time
Supporting evidence for reciprocity
Brazleton et al (1975)- the
interaction between caregiver and
infant is like a ‘dance’
Supporting evidence for Interactional synchrony
‘temporal co-ordination of micro-level
social behaviour’ Feldmann (2007)
Meltzoff and Moore (1977)
Still face experiment
Observed infants as young as 2 weeks old
Adult displayed 3 facial expressions/ distinctive gestures
Filmed by independent observers
Findings:
There was an association between the expression or gesture
the adult had displayed and the actions of the baby
The imitation was intentional
Conclusion:
Interactional synchrony is important for the development of
mother-infant attachment
Isabella et al (1989)
Observed 30 mothers and infants
Assessed their degree of synchrony and quality of
attachment
Findings:
High levels of synchrony were associated with better
quality mother-infant attachment
Evaluation for meltzoff and moore (1977) and Isabella et al (1989)
Both studies support the claim that babies make
meaningful social interactions with their carers and are
important for social development and caregiver- infant
attachment. Findings from these studies could be used to
advice working parents or those who thinking about
returning to work but are worried about the quality of
their attachments with their child/ren. Parents/ carers
can confidently return to work and be advised to
encourage interactional synchrony with their infant/s for
high quality attachments.
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However there are methodological issues with Isabella et al and Meltzoff and Moore (1977) procedure. Gratier (2003) argues that what is being observed is not interactional synchrony but hand movements or changes in expression. This is a limitation as it is difficult to be certain that the infant is consciously imitating. We cannot really know that imitation has a special meaning as we are observing from an adult perspective. However, despite this limitation controlled observations are the most appropriate research method to investigate interactional synchrony/ mother- infant interaction.
However, there are methodological issues with Isabella et al and Meltzoff and Moore (1977) procedure.
Gratier(2003) argues that what is being observed is not interactional synchrony but hand movements or changes in expression. This is a limitation as it is difficult to be certain that the infant is consciously imitating. We cannot really know that imitation has a special meaning as we are observing from an adult perspective. However, despite this limitation controlled observations are the most appropriate research method to investigate interactional synchrony/ mother- infant interaction.
The strength of using a controlled observation to investigate caregiver-infant interaction is that both mother and infant are filmed from different angles.
The investigation is
able to capture fine detail of this
interaction which can be analysed later.
Additionally as the infants being used in
these investigation are so young they
are unaware that they are being
observed and likely to behave naturally.
This is a strength as the findings are
likely to have good validity.
Critics have claimed that the
interactional- synchrony explanation
of caregiver- infant interaction is
incomplete.
Fieldman (2012) points out that synchrony simply describes behaviour that occurs at the same time, however it is not useful in telling us its purpose. This makes the explanation limited and descriptive.
For a better understanding of caregiver- infant interactions, further research may need to be completed for us to fully understand the purpose of interactional synchrony.
what is attachment?
Attachment
Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
Majority of babies become attached to their mothers first (around 7 months)- primary attachment figures
Infants were more likely to form secondary attachments with their fathers
75% of infants formed an attachment with their father by the time they were 18months
Father attachment was less important Grossman (2002)
Longitudinal study looking at both parents behaviour and its relationship to the quality of children’s’ attachment into their teens.
Findings:
Quality of infant attachment with mothers was related to children’s attachment in adolescence
The quality of fathers play with infant was related to the quality of adolescent attachments
Conclusion:
Fathers have a different role in attachment- play and stimulation not nurturing
Tiffany Field (1978)
Filmed four month old babies in face to face interaction with
Primary caregiver mothers
Secondary caregiver fathers
Primary caregiver fathers
Findings:
Primary caregiver fathers, like mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating and holding infants than secondary caregiver fathers
Conclusion:
Fathers can be nurturing attachment figures
The key to attachment is the level of responsiveness and not the gender of the parent
Research into the role of the father is contradictory and
inconsistent,
Grossman (2002) found that fathers as attachment figures is less important and they have a different role in attachment- play and stimulation not nurturing. However, Field 1978 found that fathers can be nurturing attachment figures and that the key to attachment is the level of responsiveness and not the gender of the parent. Schaffer and Emerson (1964) found that infants were more likely to form secondary attachments with their fathers by 18 months. These contradictory findings make it difficult to conclude the role of fathers in attachment, which not only limits our understanding but means that further research needs to be done to fully understand the role of fathers. This is necessary as conclusive research into the role of fathers could have an economic impact for individuals and society, it could lead to a change in social attitudes and policies around paternity leave. The government and many organisations have begun to recognise that fathers can be nurturers and the introduction of shared paternity leave in the UK supports this.
Most of the research into the role of fathers have included heterosexual males and couples,
this provides a limited view into the role of fathers as they ignore same sex couples and single parents. MacCallum and Golomobok (2004) found that children growing up in single or same-sex parents do not develop any differently than those form two parent heterosexual families. This is an important finding as it means that fathers as secondary attachment figures are not as significant as initially thought, which means that infants can develop healthy without this secondary attachment.
Explain the economic implication into the role of the father in attachment
Research into the role of fathers has far reaching implications for the economy due to its impact on
employments laws and policy. Showing the relative importance of fathers and their ability to play an equal
role of caregiver sensitivity and therefore welfare of children could impact the paternity laws. This
research has already influenced a shift towards shared parental leave and increased paternity leave for
new fathers.
This has implications for the employers in terms of paying for productivity which they are not seeing. In
addition parental leave is partially funded by both the employer and the government which has
implications for funding if both partners seek to take leave. The shared parental leave however is a double
edged sword, whilst it may reduce males in the workforce as they seek to take more leave when they have
children, this would allow mothers to take less leave and therefore return to work, allowing them to
resume contribution to the employer or in some cases parents may choose to divide the leave so each
works part time, which may mean less cover issues in some workforces.
Consequently the impact is likely to be one which levels the gender pay gap as parents seek more equality
in the workplace and childcare – taking equal advantage of the roles played by mothers and fathers or
taking joint primary attachment status.
Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
Procedure:
60 babies - 31 male, 29 female
all from glasgow majority from skilled working class families
babies and mothers visited
researchers asking mothers about the kind of protest their babies showed in 7 everyday separations eg parent leaving the room
Findings: Between 25-32 weeks 50% showed separation anxiety towards a particular adult, usually the mother (specific attachment)
Attachment tended to be with the person who was most interactive and sensitive to infant signal and facial expressions (reciprocity)
By 40 weeks 80% had specific
attachments and 30% displayed
multiple attachments
Conclusion: Responsiveness appeared to be the key to attachment Intensely attached infants had mothers who responded quickly to their demands and, interacted with their child Infants who were weakly attached had mothers who failed to interact
Schaffer and Emerson (1964
Their investigation had good external validity,
the study was carried out in the Ps home and most of the observation was done by the parents who reported to the researcher. This is a strength as the behaviour of the babies were unlikely to be affected by observer’s presence and behaved naturally. The high external validity of the study increased our confidence in the findings. []
Schaffer and Emerson (1964
Another methodological strength of their investigation was that it was carried our longitudinally, the same Ps were investigation over a long period of time.
This increased the internal validity of the research as there was no confounding variable of individual differences between Ps which would have affected the findings.
Schaffer and Emerson (1964
However, their investigation includes a limited sample of 60 babies from a similar social class, city and district,
which means it has low population validity. It was also conducted over 50 years ago and for this reason has low temporal validity. The investigation ignores cultural and social variation and historical period on child rearing practices, which makes it difficult to generalise the findings outside the research sample and conclusively claim that all infants develop attachment in the four stages identified by Schaffer and Emerson.
Schaffer and Emerson (1964
Lastly, although Schaffer and Emerson have reported that children can develop multiple attachments,
there is inconsistencies on when this occurs. Bowlby argues that most babies form one main attachment (before 2 ½ years) before multiple attachments, whilst Van Iljzendoorn found that babies form multiple attachments from the outset as multiple caregivers are the norm in some cultures. These inconsistencies limit our understanding into multiple attachments and require further investigation to clarify when babies become attached to multiple caregivers.
what are the 4 stages of attachments proposed by Schaffer and Emerson
Asocial attachment
Indiscriminate attachment
Specific attachment
Multiple attachments
Asocial attachment
0-6 Weeks
Very young infants are asocial in that many kinds of
stimuli, both social and non social, produce a
favourable reaction, such as a smile, Very few
produce protest.
Indiscriminate attachment
6 weeks to 7 months
Infants indiscriminately enjoy human company.
They get upset when an individual ceases to interact
with them. From 3 months smile more at familiar
faces and comforted easily be a regular care giver.
Specific attachment
Expresses protest when separated from one
particular individual.- primary attachment figure
They attempt to stay close to the person, and show
wariness of strangers.
Multiple attachments
Children begin to attach to others- secondary
attachment. By 18 months the majority of infants
have formed multiple attachments.
What are the problems of studying attachment through animals (3)
Generalising animal behaviour to human behaviour can be difficult- we are different!
We can not simply extrapolate findings from animal studies to humans as we have developed different and have different evolutionary explanations for our behaviour
Mammals and humans more closely related to humans.