Attachment Flashcards
1
Q
What is an attachment?
A
A two way emotional bond that develops over time between two people, shown in their behaviour.
2
Q
Who came up with the four attachment indicator behaviours and when?
A
Maccoby: 1980
3
Q
What are Maccoby’s four attachment indicator behaviours?
A
- Seeking proximity - Distress on separation - Joy on reunion - Orientation of behaviour
4
Q
What is reciprocity?
A
Interactions between the infant and the caregiver are two way, meaning the infant is an active contributor, like a dance. Reciprocal actions do not have to be coordinated.
5
Q
Give an example of reciprocity
A
- The mother smiles and the infant smiles back - The mother smiles and the infant frowns back
6
Q
How do mothers know their baby need interacting with?
A
Babies have periodic ‘alert’ phases during which they signal they are ready for interaction. Mothers are able to pick up and respond to their infant’s alertness around two thirds of the time.
7
Q
What role were babies traditionally thought to take in relationships?
A
A passive one (this has been proved to not be the case anymore)
8
Q
What happens to the baby’s relationship with the mother from around 3 months?
A
Their interactions become more frequent and involve paying close attention to each other’s verbal signals and facial expressions.
9
Q
What is interactional synchrony?
A
When the infant-caregiver interaction is not only reciprocal but also coordinated. Their actions mirror one another and move in rhythmical patterns with each other.
10
Q
Give an example of interactional synchrony
A
- Mother smiles at baby and baby smiles back - Baby points and mother looks in the direction of pointing
11
Q
What two studies are relevant to interactional synchrony?
A
- Meltzoff and Moore (1977) - Isabella et al (1989)
12
Q
Briefly outline Meltzoff and Moore’s 1977 study
A
They observed the beginnings of interactional synchrony in infants as young as 2 weeks old. An adult displayed one of three distinct gestures and the child’s response was filmed and identified. An association was found between the expression or gesture the adult had displayed and the actions of the babies.
13
Q
Briefly outline Isabella et al (1989)
A
They observed 30 mothers and infants together and assessed their degree of synchrony. The researchers assessed the quality of mother-infant attachment and found that high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant attachment.
14
Q
What are the two main criticisms of the theories of reciprocation and interactional synchrony?
A
- It is difficult to determine what is happening when observing infants - Observational research cannot tell us the purpose of reciprocity and synchrony
15
Q
Why is it difficult to determine what is happening when observing infants?
A
What is being observed is simply hand movements or changes in expression. We cannot tell is the caregiver-infant interactions have a special meaning as we cannot be certain what is happening from the infant’s perspective.
16
Q
Why can observational research not tell us the purpose of synchrony and recipocity?
A
It simply describes behaviours that occur at the same time; not their purpose. There is some evidence that reciprocity and synchrony are useful in development of mother-infant attachment but this can’t be found by simply observing.
17
Q
What are two strengths of the reciprocity and interactional synchrony theory?
A
- The tight controls imposed on observational research. - The fact that babies do not know/care that they are being observed, so research studies have high external validity
18
Q
What measure of control could be put into place when studying mother-infant interaction?
A
Mothers and infants are filmed, often from multiple angles to ensure that every fine detail of behaviour is recorded for analysis.
19
Q
Name all the researchers who contributed to knowledge about attachment with a father figure
A
- Schaffer and Emerson (1964) - Grossman (2002) - Field (1978) - Paquette (2004) - Sara McLanahan (Princeton University) - Bruce Ellis (University of Arizona)
20
Q
What did Schaffer and Emerson find in 1964 about when infants formed attachments with their father?
A
The majority of babies became attached to their mother first at around 7 months. They formed the attachment with the caregiver who was most interactive and sensitive to their signals and facial expressions, so not necessarily with whom they spent the most time. Within a few weeks or months, they formed secondary attachments to other family members including the father.
21
Q
In 75% of infants Schaffer and Emerson studied in 1964, an attachment had formed with the father by _________ months
A
18
22
Q
How many participants were involved in Schaffer and Emerson’s 1964 study?
A
60 babies (31 male, 29 female)
23
Q
What was the background of the babies/families studied by Schaffer and Emerson?
A
- They were all from Glasgow - They were mostly from skilled working-class families
24
Q
Outline how Schaffer and Emerson conducted their 1964 study into attachment
A
- They visited the babies and their mothers at home every month for the first year - They visited again after 18 months - They asked the mothers questions about the kind of protest the babies showed in 7 different everyday separations. This measured separation anxiety. - They also assessed stranger anxiety by the infant’s response to unfamiliar adults
25
Name the two strengths of Schaffer and Emerson's 1964 study
- High external validity - It was longitudinal
26
Why does Schaffer and Emerson's 1964 study have high external validity?
- It was carried out in the families' own homes - Most of the observations (other than stranger anxiety) was carried out by the parents and reported later so the babies were not affected by the presence of external observers
27
Why is it good that Schaffer and Emerson's 1964 study had high external validity?
It participants acted naturally so its findings can be generalised to the wider population
28
Why was Schaffer and Emerson's 1964 study longitudinal?
They studied and observed the same children over a long time period
29
Explain what the opposite of a longitudinal study is
A cross-sectional study involves observing different children at each age, rather than watching the same children grow through these ages.
30
Why are longitudinal studies beneficial?
They use the same participants throughout the experiment so there is not the confounding variable of individual differences between participants that wold have been present in a cross sectional study.
31
Name the weaknesses of Schaffer and Emerson's 1964 study
It has low population and temporal validity
32
Why does Schaffer and Emerson's 1964 study have low population validity?
All of the families involved in the study were from the same district, social class and city
33
Why does Schaffer and Emerson's 1964 study have low temporal validity?
The study was done 50 years ago
34
Why is having low population and temporal validity bad?
Child rearing practices vary from culture to culture and in different time periods. This means that the results are less generalisable.
35
When did Grossman carry out a psychological study relating to the role of the father?
2002
36
What did Grossman's 2002 attachment study find?
- There was no correlation between the quality of attachment with the father in infancy and the quality of attachments in adolescents - There WAS a positive correlation between the quality of attachment with the mother in infancy and the quality of attachment in adolescents - There was a positive correlation between the quality of attachment with the father in infancy and the quality of the father's play
37
What conclusions can be drawn from Grossman's 2002 study?
A good quality attachment to the father in infancy isn't as important as a good quality of attachment to the mother as it doesn't seem to have as much of a significant impact on the child's later relationships. What is important is how well the father plays with the child.
38
When did Field carry out a psychological study into attachment?
1978
39
Very briefly outline the procedure of Field's 1978 attachment study
He filmed 4 month old babies in face to face interaction with primary caregiver mothers, secondary caregiver fathers and primary caregiver fathers.
40
What did Field's 1978 attachment study find?
Primary caregiver fathers, like mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating and holding infants than secondary caregiver fathers.
41
What conclusions can be drawn from Field's 1978 study?
When the father is the primary caregiver they demonstrate just as much level of interaction and sensitivity as primary caregiver mothers. Gender is not the most important thing: a primary caregiver is simply needed.
42
When did Paquette carry out a psychological study into attachment?
2004
43
What were the findings of Paquette's 2004 attachment study?
- Fathers are more consistently involved in play than caretaking behaviours - Fathers' play is usually more unpredictable and stimulating than the mothers' soothing play - Fathers encourage toddlers to take risks and to be brave - Fathers' talk centres around active play while the mothers' centres around emotions
44
What conclusions can be drawn from Paquette's 2004 study?
The mother's role is more nurturing whilst the father's is more play-oriented
45
What did Sara McLanahan's research into attachment find?
- Boys raised in a single parent household were more than twice as likely to be incarcerated (compared with boys raised in an intact, married home) - Young men are less likely to engage in delinquent behaviour if they have affection, attention and monitoring of their own mother and father
46
What conclusions can be drawn from Sara McLanahan's and Bruce Ellis' (separate) research?
The father plays a very important role in stabilising children. Father absent homes are more likely to result in issues such as teenage pregnancy or incarceration.
47
What did Bruce Ellis' research into attachment find?
- One third of girls whose fathers left the home before they turned 6 became pregnant as teenagers (compared with 5 percent of girls who had their fathers present throughout their childhoods)
48
What are the 5 general criticisms of the psychological studies into attachment?
- Different researchers are interested in different questions regarding the father's role
- Research into mother infant interactions is socially insensitive
- Traditional gender roles could explain why father's don't become the primary attachment figure
- Hormones could explain why father's don't become the primary attachment figure
- If fathers play a significant role in gender development we would see greater differences between those with and without fathers
49
What are the two different ways that psychologists tend to study the father's role in attachment?
As a primary attachment figure and a secondary attachment figure
50
Why is it a problem that some researchers look into the role of the father as a primary attachment figure and some look into it as a secondary attachment figure?
- Researchers looking at primary attachment father figures often see them take on a more 'maternal' role.
- Researchers looking at secondary attachment father figures often see them have a distinctively different role to the mother.
This means that the role of the father doesn't have one single answer.
51
Why is looking into mother-infant interactions insensitive?
It suggests that the child may be disadvantaged by particular child-rearing practices.
52
How does the idea of interactional synchrony make looking into mother-infant interactions insensitive?
Some studies suggest that mothers who return to work early after giving birth restrict opportunities for achieving interactional synchrony. This is considered important in developing the infant-caregiver relationship so mothers who have to work may feel distressed at having to sacrifice this relationship with their child.
53
How could traditional gender roles explain why fathers generally don't become primary attachment figures?
Traditional gender roles expect women to be more caring and nurturing than men, so fathers may simply feel like they shouldn't act in this way.
54
How could hormones explain why fathers generally don't become primary attachment figures?
Female hormones such as oestrogen also create higher levels of nurturing so women are biologically created to be the primary attachment figure.
55
What discredits the importance of the role of the father figure?
Some studies (MacCallum and Golombok 2004) have found that children growing in single or same-sex parent families do not develop any differently from those in two-parent heterosexual families. This suggests that, even as a secondary attachment figure, the father isn't that important.
56
Who proposed the four stages of attachment?
Schaffer and Emerson
57
Name all the stages of attachment in order
1. Asocial stage 2. Indiscriminate attachment 3. Specific attachment 4. Multiple attachments
58
When does the asocial stage take place?
The first few weeks of a baby's life
59
How does a baby behave in the asocial stage?
- Behaviour toward non-human objects and humans is quite similar - Show some preference for familiar adults due to their ability to calm them - They are happier when in the presence of other humans
60
When does indiscriminate attachment take place?
2 - 7 months
61
How does the baby behave during indiscriminate attachment?
- Show a preference for people over non-human objects - Recognise and prefer familiar adults - Will accept comfort form any adult - Don't show stranger or separation anxiety
62
Why is it called 'indiscriminate' attachment?
The baby doesn't act any differently towards any one person
63
When does specific attachment occur?
From around 7 months
64
How does the baby behave during specific attachment?
- Displays stranger anxiety - Display separation anxiety when separated from their primary attachment figure
65
Why does someone become the baby's primary attachment figure?
They interact the most with the baby and respond best to the baby's signals
66
When do multiple attachments occur?
Shortly after the baby starts to show attachment behaviour towards one adult
67
What is involved in the multiple attachments stage?
Babies extend their attachment behaviour to multiple other adults they regularly spend time with. These are secondary attachments.
68
What percent of children form secondary attachments within a month of forming a primary attachment?
29%
69
By what age do the majority of infants develop multiple attachments?
one year old
70
Name 4 weaknesses of the stages of attachment
- Drawing conclusions from the asocial stage is problematic - There is conflicting evidence regarding multiple attachments - There may be problems with the methods used to assess multiple attachments - Schaffer and Emerson measured attachment through limited behavioural measures
71
Why is it problematic to draw conclusions from the asocial stage?
The asocial stage takes place during the first few weeks of a baby's life, during which the baby has little to no coordination and is quite immobile. They don't have much observable behaviour so it is hard to make judgements about them.
72
What research backs up Schaffer and Emerson's idea that multiple attachments form only after the baby has attached to a primary attachment figure?
Bowlby (1996) found that most, if not all babies form multiple attachments to a single main carer before they become capable of developing multiple attachments
73
What research contradicts Schaffer and Emerson's idea that multiple attachments form only after the baby has attached to a primary attachment figure?
Van IJzendoorn (1993) found that babies form multiple attachments from the outset in collectivist cultures where families work together jointly in everything (such as producing food and child rearing).
74
What does conflicting evidence about the multiple attachments stage do to Schaffer and Emerson's theory?
It reduces its validity and shows that it cannot be generalised across all different populations
75
What problems are there with the methods Schaffer and Emerson used to assess multiple attachments?
Separation anxiety doesn't necessarily show that someone is an infant's attachment figure. Bowlby pointed out that children may also become stressed when their playmates leave the room - and they are obviously not attachment figures. The child may be distressed because they lost a playmate - not an attachment figure.
76
What behavioural measures did Schaffer and Emerson use to assess attachment?
- Stranger anxiety - Separation anxiety
77
What is the problem with measuring attachment through stranger and separation anxiety?
They are simple behaviours that some critics believe to be too crude as measures of attachment.
78
When did Lorenz carry out his study into geese?
1935
79
What was the aim of Lorenz's 1935 geese study?
To investigate how baby geese form attachments as soon as they are born and whether this affects them in later life.
80
Outline the procedure of Lorenz's 1935 geese study
Lorenz randomly divided a clutch of goose eggs. Half of the eggs hatched naturally with their mother. The other half of the eggs hatched in an incubator with Lorenz being the first thing they saw. A short time after their birth, Lorenz put both groups of geese into a container to mix them up and released them to see who they would go to.
81
What were the findings of Lorenz's 1935 geese study?
The half of the goslings that were hatched with the mother followed her around. The half of the goslings that were hatched with Lorenz followed him around.
82
What concept did Lorenz's geese study lead him to coin?
Imprinting
83
Define imprinting
The tendency of animals to attach to the first large moving object they see after birth.
84
When does imprinting occur?
Between 13 and 16 hours after birth
85
What did Lorenz describe as the critical period?
The first 32 hours of the animals birth. If the infant doesn't imprint in this time, it likely won't ever
86
When did Lorenz carry out his case study into sexual imprinting?
1952
87
What did Lorenz find in his 1952 case study investigating sexual imprinting?
A peacock who first saw a moving giant tortoise after hatching would only direct courtship behaviour towards giant tortoises as an adult. This is sexual imprinting.
88
What animal did Harlow work with?
Rhesus monkeys
89
When did Harlow carry out his rhesus monkey experiments?
1958
90
Outline the procedure of Harlow's 1958 study
He reared 16 baby monkeys with 2 artificial model 'mothers'. In one condition milk was dispensed by the plain wire mother and in the other condition milk was dispensed by a cloth covered mother. Both mothers had heating elements in them.
91
How did Harlow measure the independent variable in his 1958 study?
- The amount of time the monkeys spent clinging to each of the mothers - The amount of time the monkeys spent crying when either mother was removed
92
What were the findings of Harlow's 1958 study?
- Baby monkeys cuddled the cloth mother in preference to the wire one - Baby monkeys sought comfort from the cloth mother when frightened Contact comfort was of more importance to the monkeys than food when it came to attachment behaviour.
93
What effects did early maternal deprivation have on the monkeys as Harlow followed them into adulthood?
- The monkeys were dysfunctional and did not develop normal social behaviour - They were more aggressive and less sociable than other monkeys - They bred less often than is typical and were unskilled at mating - They attacked and sometimes ate their young
94
What did Harlow conclude about the critical period for normal development?
A mother figure had to be introduced to an infant monkey within 90 days for an attachment to form. After this time attachment was impossible and the damage caused by early maternal deprivation became irreversible.
95
What other three experiments did Harlow conduct with Rhesus monkeys (brief names)
the wooden hatch one, room full of toys, mother blowing air
96
What was the procedure of Harlow's experiment using a wooden hatch?
He put the monkeys in a wooden box with a hatch that they could lift up to look at either mother.
97
What were the findings of Harlow's experiment involving a wooden hatch?
The monkeys spent almost all the time looking at the cloth mother
98
What attachment behaviour does Harlow's experiment involving a wooden hatch demonstrate?
Proximity seeking
99
What was the procedure of Harlow's experiment involving a room full of toys?
He put the monkeys on their own in a room full of toys. With them would either be the cloth mother or the wire mother.
100
What were the findings of Harlow's experiment involving a room full of toys?
The monkeys with the wire mother would freeze but the monkeys with the cloth mother would explore the room and play with the toys.
101
What attachment behaviour did Harlow's experiment involving a room full of toys demonstrate?
Exploration and secure base behaviour
102
What was the procedure of Harlow's experiment involving the cloth mother blowing out air?
The monkeys were put into a cage with the cloth mother. The cloth mother blew out air at regular intervals that threw the monkeys across the room.
103
What were the findings of Harlow's experiment involving the cloth mother blowing out air?
The monkey still clung to the cloth mother even though they were being abused by it.
104
What are the weaknesses of Lorenz's imprinting studies?
- He studies birds; not humans - Later conflicting research
105
Why is it a problem that Lorenz studied birds and not humans?
The mammalian attachment system is different to that in birds (eg: mammals are able to form attachments at any age, even if it easier in infancy). This means it is hard to generalise Lorenz's study to humans.
106
What later research put Lorenz's study into question?
Guiton et al (1966) found chickens that had imprinted on yellow washing up gloves would try and mate with them as adults. However, the chickens eventually learned that mating with a washing up glove was not practical and found that mating with other chickens was preferable.
107
What do Guiton et al's 1966 findings suggest about Lorenz's findings?
The idea that imprinting creates a permanent desire to mate with a specific species is incorrect
108
What are the two strengths of Harlow's 1958 study?
- Theoretical value - Practical value
109
Why does Harlow's 1958 study have theoretical value?
His findings had a profound effect on psychologists' understanding of human mother-infant attachment. Harlow showed that attachment does not develop as the result of being fed but as a result of contact comfort. He also showed the importance of the quality of early relationships for later social development.
110
How does Harlow's 1958 study have practical value?
- It has helped social workers understand the risk factors in child neglect and abuse so can intervene to prevent it - It has helped monkey breeding programmes and zoos understand the importance of proper attachment figures for baby monkeys
111
What are the two weaknesses of Harlow's 1958 study?
- He studied monkeys; not humans - Ethical issues
112
Why is it a problem that Harlow studied monkeys and not humans?
Monkeys are similar to humans, but they are not human. Psychologists disagree on the extent to which studies of non-human primates can be generalised to humans.
113
What are the ethical issues of Harlow's 1953 study?
- If the species of monkey is similar enough to humans to generalise the research findings, their pain is surely human and should not be allowed - The monkeys suffered attachment issues and had problems raising their young in later life
114
What does learning theory emphasise?
The role of learning in the acquisition of behaviour
115
What two explanations of attachment does learning theory include?
- Classical conditioning - Operant conditioning
116
Who came up with learning theory?
Dollard and Miller (1950)
117
What approach does learning theory take?
Behaviourist
118
Define classical conditioning
Classical conditioning involves learning to associate two stimuli together so we begin to respond to one in the same way we already respond to the other.
119
Who experimented with classical conditioning?
Pavlov
120
Outline the procedure of Pavlov's experiment into classical conditioning
He gave his dog food and it salivated. He then rang a bell when he gave the dog food. Eventually, the dog salivated at the bell alone.
121
What was the food in Pavlov's experiment?
The unconditioned stimulus
122
What was the unconditioned response in Pavlov's experiment?
The dog salivating at the food
123
What was the bell in Pavlov's experiment introduced as and what did it turn into?
Introduced as: neutral stimulus Turned into: conditioned stimulus
124
What is the conditioned response in Pavlov's experiment?
The dog salivating at the sound of a bell
125
Use learning theory to illustrate how attachments are learned
Food serves as an unconditioned stimulus. Being fed gives us pleasure which is an unconditioned response. A caregiver starts as a neutral stimulus (ie: a thing that produces a neutral response) When the same person provides food over time they become associated with the food - when the baby sees the caregiver there is an immediate expectation of food. The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus. Once conditioning has taken place the sight of a caregiver produces a conditioned response of pleasure.
126
Define operant conditioning
It involves learning to repeat behaviour, or not, depending on its consequences.
127
What does reinforcement do?
Increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated
128
What does punishment do?
Decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated
129
In terms of operant conditioning, what do positive and negative mean?
Positive means something is added. Negative means something is taken away.
130
Both positive and negative (a) must feel nice. Both positive and negative (b) must feel bad.
a) reinforcement b) punishment
131
Give an example of positive reinforcement
Being given a lollipop
132
Give an example of negative reinforcement
Avoiding doing chores
133
Give an example of positive punishment
Get a smack
134
Give an example of negative punishment
Confiscation of your phone
135
How can operant conditioning explain why babies cry for comfort?
Crying leads to a response from the caregiver (eg: feeding). As long as the caregiver provides this response, crying is reinforced for the baby. When the baby stops crying, the caregiver receives negative reinforcement. This mutual reinforcement strengthens their attachment.
136
What is drive reduction?
Doing something to reduce a drive we have (ie: eating reduces our drive to eat)
137
In terms of hunger and attachment, which is thought of as the primary and secondary drive?
Primary = hunger Secondary = attachment
138
Explain why hunger is the primary drive
It is an innate biological motivator
139
Explain why attachment is the secondary drive
As a caregiver provides food, the primary drive of hunger becomes generalised to them. Attachment is therefore a secondary drive learned by association between the caregiver and the satisfaction of the primary drive.
140
What are the weaknesses of learning theory?
- It is reductionist - Contradicting evidence from animal studies - Contradicting evidence from human studies
141
Although learning theory is not a good explanation for infant caregiver attachment, what is one benefit of the theory?
The idea that feeding provides the unconditioned stimulus and reinforcement of the primary drive is widely considered to be incorrect but it is still credible that association (classical conditioning) between the primary caregiver and comfort and social interaction is part of what builds the attachment.
142
What evidence from animal studies counters learning theory?
A range of studies have shown that young animals don't necessarily attach to (or imprint on) those who feed them. Eg: Lorenz's geese imprinted before they were fed Harlow's monkeys were shown to attach due to contact comfort rather than food.
143
What evidence from human studies counters learning theory?
Studies have shown that feeding doesn't appear to be an important factor in human attachment. Eg: in Schaffer and Emerson's study the babies developed a primary attachment to their mothers even though other carers did most of the feeding.
144
Why is learning theory reductionist?
It ignores other factors associated with forming attachments such as developing reciprocity and good levels of interactional synchrony. If attachment was simply developed through feeding the relationship between mother and infant would not be as complex.
145
What does reductionist mean?
Simplifies a theory too much
146
What is cupboard love?
Only showing affection because you need something
147
Name the 4 main parts of Bowlby's monotropic theory
- Monotropy - Social releasers - Critical period - Internal working model
148
What does monotropy mean?
The primary caregiver is of paramount importance and effects an infant's attachments through their life.
149
Why is the primary caregiver so important?
- Law of continuity - Law of accumulated separation - Maternal deprivation theory
150
What is the law of continuity?
The idea that the primary caregiver is important because they provide consistency of care
151
What is the law of accumulated separation?
Every time the infant is significantly separated from their mother adds up and affects them negatively.
152
What is the maternal deprivation hypothesis?
If a child is deprived from their mother at an early age it will have negative effects on their development.
153
How is attachment innate?
Attachment is a product of evolution that we use to survive. An infant needs to seek proximity to their caregiver in order to stay alive.
154
Why does a caregiver attach to their infant?
It promotes the survival of their offspring, meaning their genes will survive.
155
What are social releasers?
Innate cute behaviours that a child displays in order to draw their caregiver to them
156
Give some examples of social releasers
- Crying - Cooing - Smiling - Gripping
157
Define the critical period?
The critical period of time in which an attachment must be formed or it may never happen.
158
What did Bowlby say the critical period was?
The first 2-3 years of a child's life is the critical period in which they must form attachment with a primary caregiver.
159
What is the internal working model?
A template for future relationships that is formed by our experiences with our first relationship with our primary caregiver. It affects the child's ability to be a parent themselves.
160
What is in the child's internal working model?
- Whether they are lovable or not - Whether their parent figure is trustworthy or not - A model of their relationship with their parent
161
What are the strengths of Bowlby's monotropic theory?
- The internal working model is testable - Evidence backing up 'cute' behaviours
162
What are the weaknesses of Bowlby's monotropic theory?
- The research into monotropy is conflicting - Temperament - Monotropy is a socially sensitive idea
163
How is the internal working model testable?
It predicts that patterns of attachment will be passed on from one generation to the next.
164
What study evidence tests the internal working model?
Bailey et al (2007) assessed 99 mothers with one-year-old babies on the quality of their attachment to their own mothers using a standard interview procedure. Mothers who reported poor attachment to their own parents in the interviews were much more likely to have poor attachments to their children.
165
How does Bailey et al (2007) support the internal working model?
The mother's relationships with their mothers clearly acted as a template for their relationships with their children.
166
What evidence shows that social releasers are intended to initiate social interactions between mother and baby?
Brazleton et al (1975) observed mothers and babies during their interactions, reporting the existence of interactional synchrony. They then extended the study from an observation to an experiment. The primary attachment figures were instructed to ignore their babies' social releasers
167
How did the babies in Brazleton et al's 1975 study react to their parents ignoring their social releasers?
- Initially showed some distress - When they continued to be ignored some curled up and lay motionless
168
How does Brazleton et al's 1975 study show how important social releasers are?
The babies' extreme reactions to not having their social releasers responded to show how important they are in terms of eliciting caregiving.
169
Explain two conflicting approaches to the idea of monotropy
- Bowlby believed that babies formed one extremely significant attachment to their primary caregiver. Only after this attachment was established could a child form multiple attachments - Schaffer and Emerson (1964) found most babies did attach to one person first, however a significant minority could form attachments at the same time
170
How is it unclear whether there is something unique about the first attachment or not?
Studies of attachment to mother and father often show that attachment to the mother is more important in predicting later behaviour. However, this could simply mean that attachment to the primary attachment figure is just stronger than other attachments; not necessarily different in quality.
171
Define temperament
The child's genetically influenced personality
172
How does the idea of temperament put into question the role of attachment in social development?
Some babies may simply be more anxious than others and some more sociable as a result of their genetic makeup. These differences in temperament explain later social behaviour rather than attachment experiences.
173
How is the idea of monotropy socially insensitive?
It has major implications for the lifestyle choices mothers make when their children are young. The law of accumulated separation might make mothers worried about returning to work and places blame on them for everything that subsequently goes wrong in their child's life.
174
Who came up with the strange situation?
Mary Ainsworth (1978)
175
What is the aim of the strange situation?
To observe key attachment behaviours to assess the quality of a child's attachment to a caregiver
176
What type of experiment is the strange situation?
A controlled observation
177
How did psychologists observe the strange situation?
A two-way mirror through which psychologists can observe the infant's behaviour
178
List the behaviours being judged in the strange situation
- Proximity seeking - Exploration and secure base-behaviour - Stranger anxiety - Separation anxiety - Response to reuinion
179
What is proximity seeking?
An infant with a good attachment will stay fairly close to the caregiver
180
What is exploration and secure base behaviour?
Good attachment enables a child to feel confident to explore their surroundings whilst returning fairly regularly to their caregiver as a secure base.
181
What is stranger anxiety?
Anxiety near strangers
182
What is separation anxiety?
Becoming distressed on separation from the primary caregiver
183
What is response to reunion?
How the infant reacts to being reunited with their attachment figure
184
How many episodes does the strange situation have?
7
185
List the stages of the strange situation
1. The mother and baby play together in a room 2. A stranger enters the room. They talk to the mother and then approach the baby 3. The mother leaves and the stranger tries to interact with the baby 4. The mother returns and the stranger leaves 5. The mother leave the baby completely on its own 6. The stranger enters and interacts with the child 7. The mother returns, greets and picks up the baby
186
What attachment behaviours does stage 1 (mother and baby play together in a room) measure?
- Exploration and secure base behaviour - Proximity seeking
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What attachment behaviours does stage 2 (stranger enters the room and talks with mother and baby) measure?
Stranger anxiety
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What attachment behaviours does stage 3 (mother leaves and stranger tries to interact with baby) measure?
- Separation anxiety - Stranger anxiety
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What attachment behaviours does stage 4 (mother returns and stranger leaves) measure?
Response on reuinion
190
What attachment behaviours does stage 5 (mother leaves baby completely on its own) measure?
Separation anxiety
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What attachment behaviours does stage 6 (stranger enters and interacts with the child) measure?
Stranger anxiety
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What attachment behaviours does stage 7 (mother returns, greets and picks up the baby) measure?
Response on reunion
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What did Ainsworth identify as the three main types of attachment from her strange situation study?
- Secure attachment (Type B) - Insecure avoidant attachment (Type A) - Insecure resistant attachment (Type C)
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What are the characteristics of a secure attachment?
- Explore happily but regularly go back to the caregiver - Show moderate separation distress - Moderate stranger anxiety - Require and accept comfort on reunion
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What are the characteristics of an insecure avoidant attachment?
- Explore freely but do not seek proximity or show secure base behaviour - Show little or no reaction when their caregiver leaves - Make little effort to make contact when the caregiver returns - Show little stranger anxiety
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What are the characteristics of an insecure resistant attachment?
- Seek greater proximity than others so explore less - Huge stranger distress - Huge separation distress - Resist comfort when reunited with their caregiver
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Which is the most insecure attachment type?
Insecure resistant
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What are the strengths of the strange situation?
- The attachment type defined by the strange situation is strongly predictive of later development - High inter-rater reliability
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What are the weaknesses of the strange situation?
- Cultural differences - Temperament
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How is the attachment type identified in the strange situation strongly predictive of later development?
Babies assessed as secure typically go on to have better outcomes in many areas (eg: academic success, fulfilling romantic relationships and friendships) Insecure resistant attachment is associated with the worst outcomes (eg: bullying in childhood and adult mental health problems)
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Why does the strange situation have good inter-rater reliability?
Different observers watching the same children in the strange situation generally agree on what attachment type to classify them as. This could be because the experiment occurs under controlled conditions or because behavioural categories are easy to observe.
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Why is high inter-rater reliability good?
It means we can be confident that the attachment type of an infant does not just depend on who is observing them.
203
Explain why there is doubt around whether the strange situation is a culturally bound test
It may not have the same meaning outside Western Europe and the USA. This could be because of differences in childhood experiences and caregiver behaviours that make children respond in different ways.
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What evidence shows that the strange situation is not a culturally bound test?
Takahashi (1990) found that the test doesn't really work in Japan as the mothers are so rarely separated from their babies that extreme anxiety was experienced when they were apart.
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How does temperament question the validity of the strange situation?
The strange situation measures a child's responses to the anxiety produced by being in an unfamiliar environment, but it is debatable if the main influence of this is attachment or temperament.
206
Define culture
The norms and values that exist within any group of people.
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What are cultural variations?
The differences in norms and values that exist between people in different groups
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Who conducted a meta-analysis into the strange situation?
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg
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What did Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta analysis aim to do?
To look at the proportions of secure, insecure avoidant and insecure resistant attachments across a range of countries. They also looked at the differences within the same countries to get an idea of variations within a culture.
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Outline the procedure of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta-analysis
The researchers located 32 studies of attachment where the strange situation had been used to investigate the proportions of infants with different attachment types.
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How many countries did Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta-analysis cover?
8
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What countries did Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta-analysis cover?
- Britain - Germany - Netherlands - Sweden - Japan - Israel - United States - China
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Name the two types of cultures
- Individualist - Collectivist
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What does an individualist culture value?
Independence: everybody works toward their own individual goals
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What does a collectivist culture value?
Cooperation: everybody works toward the family or group goals
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What was the most common attachment type in all countries according to Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta-analysis?
Secure
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What percentage of results from Britain showed secure attachment according to Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta-analysis?
75%
218
What percentage of results from China showed secure attachment according to Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta-analysis?
50%
219
What was the least common type of attachment according to Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta-analysis?
Insecure-resistant
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What percentage of results from Britain showed insecure-resistant attachment according to Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta-analysis?
3%
221
What percent of results from Israel showed insecure-resistant attachment according to Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta-analysis??
30%
222
Where were insecure-avoidant attachments observed the most according to Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta-analysis?
Germany
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Where were insecure-avoidant attachments observed the least according to Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta-analysis?
Japan
224
Variation between results of studies within the same country were (?)% greater than those between countries
150%
225
Who conducted a study in Italy?
Simonella et al (2014)
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What did Simonella's Italian study aim to find?
Whether the proportions of babies of different attachment types still matches those found in previous studies
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Outline the method of Simonella's Italian study
Researchers assessed 76 12-month olds using the strange situation.
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What were the findings of Simonella's Italian study?
- 50% were secure - 36% were insecure-avoidant
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Why did Simonella suggest they found a lower rate of secure attachment in their Italian study?
Increasing numbers of very young mothers work long hours and use professional childcare
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What do the findings of Simonella's Italian study suggest about cultural changes?
Cultural changes can make a dramatic difference to patterns of secure and insecure attachment
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Who conducted a study in Korea?
Jin et al (2012)
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What was the aim of Jin's Korean study?
To compare the proportions of attachment types in Korea to other studies
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How did Jin carry out her Korean study?
The strange situation was used to assess 87 children
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What were the results of Jin's Korean study?
- The overall proportions of insecure and secure babies were similar to those in most countries in that most infants were secure - A surprising result was that more of those classified as insecurely attached were resistant (only one child was avoidant)
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What country is the distribution of attachments found in Korea similar to?
Japan
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What does Korea and Japan's distribution of attachment types being similar show?
Countries that have similar child rearing practices are likely to have the same parent-infant attachment styles
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What conclusions can be drawn from these studies into cultural variation?
- Secure attachment seems to be the norm in a wide range of cultures, supporting Bowlby's idea that attachment is innate and universal - This research also shows that cultural practices have an influence on attachment type
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What are the strengths of cross cultural variation studies?
- Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's study had a large sample size
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What are the weaknesses of cross cultural variation studies?
- Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's study compared countries rather than cultures - The method of assessment is usually culturally biased - The strange situation lacks validity
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How large was Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg's sample size?
1990 children and their attachment figures
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Why is Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg's large sample size a strength?
It reduces the effects of anomalies. With a smaller sample anomalies are more likely to skew the data, whereas this is less likely with such a large sample. This increases internal validity.
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Why did Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg not really measure cultural variations?
They made comparisons between countries rather than cultures. Within a country there are many different cultures - each with different child rearing practices.
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Why is it a weakness for Van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg's study to measure variations between countries rather than cultures?
It lacks internal validity as it doesn't measure what it claims to
244
What ideas do cross cultural psychology include?
Ideas of the etic and emic
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What does etic mean?
Cultural universals
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What does emic mean?
Cultural uniqueness
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Why is it a problem that the strange situation was designed by an American researcher (Ainsworth) based on a British theory (Bowlby)?
There is a question over whether Anglo-American theories and assessments can be applied to other cultures. It is known as imposed etic.
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What is imposed etic?
Trying to apply a theory or technique designed for one culture to another
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Give an example of imposed etic
The idea that a lack of separation anxiety and lack of pleasure on reunion indicate an insecure attachment in the strange situation. In Germany this behaviour might be seen more as independence than avoidance (so not a sign of insecurity).
250
Why does the strange situation lack validity?
It measures the effects separation anxiety have on children, but it is not certain whether these are down to attachment type or temperament. This means that studies using the strange situation as evidence may not have as strong reasoning as they would think.
251
Define institutionalisation
The effects of living in an institutional setting such as a hospital or orphanage for a long period of time
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What studies have been used to prove whether there are long term negative effects to maternal deprivation?
Orphan studies
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Why was Romania a good country to study institutionalisation in during the 1990s?
The president at the time banned abortion and contraception as he wanted women to have as many children as possible in order to increase the workforce. Many parents couldn't afford to have this many children so had to give them up to orphanages that became overcrowded.
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Who studied Romanian orphans?
Rutter
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What was the aim of Rutter's study?
To see the extent to which good care could make up for poor early experiences in institutions
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What was Rutter's sample?
Rutter followed a group of 165 Romanian orphans adopted in Britain.
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Outline Rutter's procedure
He tested the physical, cognitive and emotional development of the orphans at ages 4, 6, 11 and 15. A group of 52 British children adopted around the same time served as a control group.
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What did Rutter's orphan study find in terms of intellectual development?
- When the children first arrived in the UK half the adoptees showed signs of delayed intellectual development and the majority were severely malnourished - At age 11 the adopted children showed differential rates of recovery that were related to their age of adoption. - The mean IQ of those adopted before 6 months old was 102. The mean IQ of those adopted between 6 months and 2 years was 86.
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What did Rutter's orphan study find in terms of attachment?
There was a difference in outcome depending on whether adoption took place before or after 6 months. - Those adopted after they were 6 months old showed signs of disinhibited attachment - Those adopted before the age of 6 months rarely displayed disinhibited attachment
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Other than Rutter's Romanian orphan studies, what study was carried out into the effects of institutionalisation?
The Bucharest Early Intervention Project (Zeanah et al 2005)
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Outline the sample of Zeanah et al's study
- Attachment was assessed in 95 children aged 12-31 months. These children had spent most of their lives in institutional care. - A control group of 50 children who had never lived in an institution was used for comparison.
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How did Zeanah et al assess attachment?
- The strange situation - Carers were also asked about unusual social behaviour including being clingy and attention seeking that was directed towards adults
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What were Zeanah et al's findings?
74% of the control group was securely attached. 19% of the institutional group were securely attached. 44% of institutionalised children had disinhibited attachments. Less than 20% of the control group had disinhibited attachment.
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Name the 2 main effects of institutionalisation
- Disinhibited attachment - Mental disadvantages
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What is a characteristic of disinhibited attachment?
Children are equally affectionate towards people they know well or who are strangers
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Why did Rutter say institutionalisation causes disinhibited attachment?
It was an adaptation to living with multiple caregivers during the sensitive period for attachment formation. In poor quality institutions in Romania a chid might have 50 carers - none of whom they see enough to form a secure attachment.
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What did Rutter's study show about the long term effects on intellectual development caused by institutionalisation?
Damage to intellectual development as a result of institutionalisation can be recovered provided adoption takes place before the age of 6 months.
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What are the benefits of orphan studies?
- Real life applications
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What are the weaknesses of orphan studies?
- Rutter's study doesn't truly measure the long term effects of institutionalistion - Rutter's study is not generalisable - Rutter's study is methodologically flawed
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What are the real life applications of the Romanian orphan studies?
Rutter's study helped people to understand the effects of institutionalisation and children now have one or two key workers in orphanages to give them the opportunity to form an attachment with a caregiver.
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Why is it good that children have one or two key workers in orphanages now?
- Children need to form a primary attachment with one significant person - The law of continuity suggests that having one key worker consistently will provide continuity of care
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Why does Rutter's study not truly measure the long term effects of institutionalisation?
Rutter only measured the children up to the age of 15 so we only see intellectual attachment related effects up to their teenage years
273
Why is Rutter's study not truly measuring the long term effects of institutionalisation a weakness?
It means his study lacks internal validity as it doesn't measure what it claims to
274
Why are Rutter's results not generalisable?
The Romanian orphanages were particularly terrible and subjected the children to worse care than other institutions (ie: abuse and neglect)
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Why is it a weakness that Rutter's study is not generalisable?
It means it lacks external validity as it does not reflect the most common experiences
276
What is the problem with Rutter's English and Romanian Adoptee project?
The independent variable was naturally occurring and not manipulated by the researchers as it involved a group of children who were adopted by British couples. This makes Rutter's experiment natural so there may be participant variables at work.
277
What participant variables are at work in Rutter's study?
The children adopted may have been more appealing to the couples - perhaps because they were more social and intelligent. This means that the effects represented in the study may not be as severe as those of other types of institutionalised children.
278
Why are participant variables a weakness in Rutter's study?
It means it has low internal validity as it doesn't truly measure the severity of institutionalisation.
279
What is the internal working model?
The mental representations we all carry with us of our attachment to our primary caregiver. They are important in affecting our future relationships because they carry our perception of what relationships are like.
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How will a child whose first experience is of a loving relationship with a reliable caregiver act in future relationships?
They will seek out functional relationships and behave functionally within them as they assume all relationships are meant to be as stable as their first.
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How will a child whose first experience is of a bad attachment likely act in future relationships?
They may struggle to form relationships in the first place or may not behave appropriately when they do have them.
282
(a) is associated with the quality of (b) relationships in childhood
a) attachment type b) peer
283
How do people with secure attachment types act in relationships?
- Have the best relationships out of all the attachment types - Have longer romantic relationships - Are able to support and accept their partner
284
Which attachment type is most likely to be a victim of bullying?
Insecure avoidant
285
Which attachment type is most likely to be a bully?
Insecure resistant
286
How do people with an insecure avoidant attachment act in romantic relationships?
- Struggle with intimacy - Emotional highs and lows - Jealousy
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How do people with an insecure resistant attachment type act in relationships (platonic and romantic)?
- Struggle to maintain friendships - Romantic relationships are an obsession - Have a desire for reciprocation and union
288
Who carried out a study into the links between bullying and attachment type?
Myron-Wilson and Smith (1998)
289
Outline Myron-Wilson and Smith's procedure
They used standard questionnaires on 196 children aged 7-11 from London.
290
Who conducted a study into the link between early attachment and romantic relationships in later life
McCarthy (1999) Hazan and Shaver (1987)
291
Outline McCarthy's procedure
He studied 40 adult women who had been assessed when they were infants to establish their early attachment types
292
Outline Hazan and Shaver's procedure
They analysed 620 replies to a 'love quiz' printed in an American local newspaper. The quiz had 3 sections: 1. Assessing their current or most important relationship 2. Assessing their general love experiences 3. Assessed attachment type
293
What were the findings of Hazan and Shaver's procedure?
56% of respondents were identified as securely attached. These people were most likely to have good and longer lasting romantic experiences. 25% were insecure-avoidant. These people tended to feel jealousy and fear of intimacy 19% were insecure-resistant
294
Who conducted a study into the link between the relationship with your mother and your parenting style?
Bailey et el (2007)
295
Outline Bailey et al's procedure
They considered the attachments of 99 mothers to their babies and to their own mothers. Mother-baby attachment was assessed using the strange situation and mother-mother attachment was measured using an adult attachment interview.
296
What did Bailey et al find?
The majority of women had the same attachment classification both to their babies and their mothers.
297
What are the weaknesses of the investigations into attachment and later relationships?
- The evidence on continuity of attachment type is mixed - The methods used to assess an infant's attachment have validity issues - Association doesn't mean causation - Theoretical problems with the self-report method
298
How is the evidence on continuity of attachment type mixed?
- Bailey et al support the idea of the internal working model by finding that you have the same attachment to your child that you have to your mother - Zimmerman (2000) found very little relationship between the quality of infant attachment and adolescent attachment to parents
299
Why are there issues with validity for many of the methods used to assess an infant's attachment?
Many studies use interview or questionnaire to assess infant attachment type in later years rather than the strange situation. These assessments rely on self-report techniques and so respondents may not be honest or have a realistic view of their relationships.
300
What may influence later relationships rather than the internal working model?
- Parenting style - The child's temperament
301
What is the theoretical problem with most research related to the internal working model?
Internal working models are unconscious as we are not directly aware of their influence on us, whereas self-report is conscious. This is an issue because we can only self-report on things that we are aware of.
302
Briefly name two strengths of the maternal deprivation theory
- Animal studies - Practical application
303
Briefly name the four weaknesses of the maternal deprivation theory
- Poor evidence - Contradicting research - Evidence against the critical period - Privation
304
Why was the evidence that influenced Bowlby to coin his maternal deprivation theory poor?
Some of the research that influenced Bowlby to come up with his theory included studies of children orphaned during the second world war. The children's trauma and poor after-care in orphanages could have caused their later developmental difficulties rather than separation from their mothers.
305
Name a design flaw in Bowlby's study
Researcher bias - Bowlby himself carried out the assessments for affectionless psychopathy and the family interviews. He may have found evidence for his theory simply because he wanted it to be there.
306
What opposing research is there for Bowlby's maternal deprivation theory?
Hilda Lewis (1954) partially replicated the 44 thieves study looking at 500 young people instead. She found that a history of prolonged separation from the mother did not predict criminality or difficulty forming relationships.
307
What does the opposing research suggest about maternal deprivation?
Other factors may affect the outcome of early maternal deprivation
308
What is the problem with the critical period?
There is evidence to suggest that it is not, in fact, critical but just sensitive.
309
What evidence suggests that Bowlby overemphasised the importance of the critical period?
Koluchova (1976) reported on the case of twin boys from Czechoslovakia who were isolated from the age of 18 months to 7 years old. They were subsequently cared for by two loving adults and appeared to fully recover.
310
Why is the idea of privation a problem for Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation?
Rutter (1981) said that Bowlby was lumping together the effects of both privation and deprivation to only explain deprivation.
311
What is the difference between deprivation and privation?
Deprivation = the loss of the primary attachment figure after an attachment has developed Privation = the failure to form any attachment in the first place
312
Why is Bowlby's confusion of deprivation and privation a problem?
His study lacks internal validity as it measures the effects of privation instead of deprivation in some cases.
313
What research supports the maternal deprivation theory?
Levy et al (2003) showed that separating baby rats from their mother for as little as a day had a permanent effect on their social development though not other aspects of their development.
314
What practical applications in society does maternal deprivation have?
Social workers know to prioritise keeping children with their mothers wherever possible and to provide good quality care during periods of separation. This is to reduce the likelihood of intellectual and emotional effects being experienced by the child.
315
What is maternal deprivation?
The emotional and intellectual consequences of separation between a child and their mother or substitute mother.
316
What is the difference between separation and deprivation?
Separation simply means that the child is not in the presence of the primary attachment figure and is temporary with no long term effects. Deprivation involves a more permanent distance between the child and their primary attachment figure and can leave long term damage.
317
What did Bowlby see as the critical period for psychological development?
The first 30 months of life
318
How are the critical period and maternal deprivation linked?
If the child is separated from their mother in the absence of suitable substitute care and so deprived of her emotional care for a significant time during the critical period then Bowlby believed that psychological damage is inevitable.
319
What two types of development did Bowlby say were affected by maternal deprivation?
- Intellectual - Emotional
320
How does maternal deprivation affect intellectual development?
- It would be delayed - Children would have abnormally low IQ
321
What evidence is there for maternal deprivation affecting intellectual development?
Goldfarb (1947) found lower IQ in children who had remained in institutions as opposed to those who were fostered and thus had a higher standard of emotional care.
322
How does maternal deprivation affect emotional development?
Bowlby coined the term 'affectionless psychopathy' to define what these children develop. - Inability to experience guilt - Lack of empathy - More likely to commit crime - Struggle to form relationships with others
323
Outline the procedure of Bowlby's 44 Thieves study
- 44 criminal teenagers accused of stealing were interviewed for signs of affectionless psychopathy - Their families were also interviewed to establish whether these teenagers had prolonged early separation from their mothers - A control group of 44 non-criminal but emotionally disturbed teenagers was also interviewed to see if maternal deprivation occurred here too
324
Where did Bowlby find the teenagers he interviewed?
They had been admitted to the child guidance clinic he worked for
325
What percent of children who committed crimes were identified as affectionless psychopaths?
32%
326
Of the criminal teens who were identified as affectionless psychopaths, what percent had experienced maternal deprivation?
86%
327
What percent of children who had emotional problems but had not committed crimes were identified as affectionless psychopaths?
0%
328
What percent of children who had emotional problems but had not committed crimes had experienced maternal deprivation?
4%
329
What did Bowlby conclude from his 44 Thieves study?
Maternal deprivation can cause psychopathy which can lead to criminal behaviour.
